Index
Page numbers followed by f refer to figures, t refer to tables, respectively.
A
ABA. See abscisic acid (ABA)
ABO blood groups, 461, 461t
inheritance of, 149, 149f
abscisic acid (ABA), 358, 359t, 373
effects of, 358, 358f
abscission, 358
abstinence, 519, 519t
acetylcholine (ACh), 476, 482
acetylcholinesterase (AChE), 476
acetyl-CoA, 102, 106, 106f
in citric acid cycle, 102, 103f
ACh. See acetylcholine (ACh)
AChE. See acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
acid(s), 25, 26, 26f, 27
strong, 25, 25f
acid-base balance, regulation of, 429, 429f, 432
acid deposition, 26, 26f
acid precipitation, 28, 552
acid rain. See acid precipitation
acoelomates, 308f, 309, 309f, 311
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. See AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
acrosome, 515, 515f, 524f
ACTH. See adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
actin, 39, 166, 505
actin filament, 62, 62f, 67
action potential(s), 475
conduction of, 475, 475f
active immunity, 464
active site, 76, 76f, 80
active transport, 77, 78, 78f, 80
acyclovir, 269
AD. See Alzheimer disease (AD)
adaptation(s), 4, 221, 223, 223f, 228
adaptive radiation, 251, 251f
Addison disease, 487
adenine (A), 41, 41f, 161, 161f, 
162, 164
adenosine deaminase gene, gene therapy with, 210
adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 72, 72f, 80, 94
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 
60, 80
in active transport, 78, 78f
breakdown of, 72, 72f, 73, 73f
in glycolysis, 100f, 101
in cellular respiration, 98
formation of, 72, 72f
in fermentation, 107, 107f
in glycolysis, 100f, 101
in photosynthesis, 86, 86f, 89, 89f, 94
structure of, 72, 72f
substrate-level synthesis of, 100f, 101, 101f, 102, 103f, 106, 106f, 107
synthesis of, 61, 67, 105, 105f
use of, 72, 72f
yield of, from glucose metabolism, 106, 106f, 108
ADH. See antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
adhesion, of water molecules, 23, 23f, 349
adhesion junction, 65, 65f, 67
adipose tissue, 382f, 446
adrenal cortex, 487
adrenal gland(s), 487
adrenal medulla, 487
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 166, 166f, 484
adult stem cells, 188
in cloning, 181
advertisements, for food and 
drink, 454
African sleeping sickness, 278, 278f
Agent Orange, 273
age structure, 536f, 537, 539, 
539f, 548
agglutination, 461
Agnatha, 321f, 322
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), 265, 266, 466, 
522, 522f
drugs for, costs of, 470
effect on population growth in Africa, 536
helper T cells in, 466, 466f
opportunistic fungal infections 
in, 301
treatment of, 466
costs of, 470
vaccine against, 466
Alagille syndrome, 199, 199f
albumin, 166
alcohol
and cancer, 123
consumption of, in pregnancy, 110
algae (sing. alga), 84, 84f, 94, 
266, 276
biology of, 277, 277f, 281
classification of, 276, 277
in lichen, 299
metabolic pathways in, 91, 91f
reproduction of, 277
structure of, 277, 277f
allantois, 524f, 527
allele(s), 128, 145, 145f, 232
dominant, frequencies of, 
233, 233f
frequencies of, in population, 233–234
multiple, 156
rearrangement of, in meiosis, 131, 131f, 132, 132f, 232
X-linked, 152–153
allergen(s), 465
allergy(ies), 465, 465f
allopatric speciation, 250, 250f, 262
alternation of generations, 286, 286f, 302, 362, 362f
alveolus (pl. alveoli), 423, 425, 425f
Alzheimer disease (AD), 112, 480
Amborella trichopoda, 292, 292f
amino acid(s), 39, 43
essential, 106
formation of, 106
in plants, 91, 91f
hydrocarbon backbone of, in metabolism, 106, 106f
mRNA codons for, 166, 167, 167f
structure of, 39, 39f
amino acid sequence(s), 40, 40f
similarities, in different organisms, 227, 227f
amino group(s), 31f, 34, 39
Amish, founder effect in, 238, 238f
ammonia, 25, 106, 106f, 429
ammonium, in nitrogen cycle, 
566, 566f
amniocentesis, 197, 197f, 206
amnion, 524f, 526, 526f
amniotic egg, 321f
of birds, 324
of monotremes, 326
of reptiles, 324, 324f
amniotic fluid, 526, 526f
amoeba, reproduction of, 112, 112f
amoebas, 278, 278f
amoeboid cell(s), 79, 278
amoeboids, 279
amphibian(s), 323, 334
circulatory pathways in, 398, 398f
evolution of, 321, 321f, 323, 323f
ampicillin, 274
amygdala, 480, 480f
amyloplasts, 91
anabolic steroids, 38, 516
analogous structure, 226, 257
analogy, 257
anaphase, 114f, 115, 115f, 117f, 118, 124, 134t
anaphase I, 132, 132f, 134, 134t, 138
anaphase II, 133, 133f, 134t, 138
anemia, 42, 442
angiogenesis, 121, 188, 190
inhibition of, 122, 190
angiosperm(s), 286, 290, 302
adaptations of, 294
biology of, 292–293
diversity of, 292
evolution of, 285f, 292
gametophyte of, 286, 286f
life cycle of, 293, 293f
uses of, 294
angiostatin, 190
animal(s), 6, 7f, 262
characteristics of, 306–307, 306f
classification of, 305–306
cloning of, 180, 181f
evolutionary tree of, 308–309, 308f, 309f, 333
evolution of, 306–309, 333
laboratory research using, 336
reproduction of, 530
transgenic, 175, 175f
animal cell(s), 67
cell surfaces of, 64–65, 64f
cytokinesis in, 117f, 118, 118f
mitosis in, 115, 116–117, 116f–117f
osmosis in, 78, 78f
structure of, 54f
animal kingdom, 6, 7f
annelid(s), 308f, 309, 309f, 313f, 315, 333
annual ring, 345, 345f
anorexia nervosa, 448
antennae, of crustaceans, 316
anterior pituitary, 484, 485f
and male reproductive system, 516
anther, 292, 362f, 363
of angiosperms, 293, 293f
anther culture, for plant 
propagation, 370
antheridium, 289f
anthrax, 272
anthropoid(s), 328, 328f
antibacterial(s), 2
mechanism of action of, 274
antibiotics
bacterial resistance to, 216
mechanism of action of, 274
natural sources of, 588
overuse of, 282
resistance to, 239, 275
antibody(ies), 38, 166, 406, 456
functions of, 461, 461f
production of, 460, 460f
specificity of, 461, 461f
anticodon, 168, 169f
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 485
antigen(s), 406, 456, 460
antigen-presenting cell (APC), 
462, 462f
antioxidant(s), 442
ants, bullhorn acacia and, mutualism of, 558, 558f
anus, 420
in female, 516f
aorta, 399, 402
aortic body, 424
aortic semilunar valve, 399, 399f
APC gene, 194
apes, 328, 328f, 329
apical dominance, 357, 357f
apical meristem, 341
of eudicot root, 346f, 347
apicocomplexans, 278, 278f
aplastic anemia, 48
apoptosis, 58, 119, 119f, 120, 120f, 124, 189, 460, 462
appendages, of crustaceans, 316, 316f
appendicitis, 419–420
appendicular skeleton, 503
appendix, 419, 456
aquaculture, 589
aquatic ecosystem(s), 568, 568f, 572
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
aquifer(s), 579
water removal from, 579, 580
arachnid(s), 317, 333
arboreal life, 328
Archaea. See domain Archaea
archaea. See also domain Archaea
biology of, 281
definition of, 275
functions of, 275
structure of, 275
types of, 275
Archaeopteryx, 224, 224f
archegonium, 289f
armadillo
and glyptodont, comparison 
of, 219f
nine-banded, 588, 588f
arteriole(s), 401
artery(ies), 399, 401f
arthropod(s), 308f, 309, 309f, 313f, 316, 333
anatomy of, 316, 316f
diversity of, 316
arthroscopy, 506
artificial insemination by donor 
(AID), 520
artificial selection, 215, 222
Ascaris, 312f, 313
asexual reproduction, 112, 112f, 512, 512f, 530
bacterial, 271–272, 272f
in flowering plants, 369–372, 373
fungal, 297, 297f
of lichen, 299, 299f
of sponges, 310
A site, 169, 169f, 170, 170f
assisted reproductive technology, 140, 158, 521–522
assortative mating, 236
aster, 115, 117f
asthma, 423
atherosclerosis, 36
athletes
blood doping by, 412
erythropoietin use by, 412
athlete’s foot, 301, 301f
atom(s), 17
atomic number, 17, 27
atomic symbol, 17
atomic theory, 17, 230
atomic weight, 17
ATP cycle, 72, 72f, 80
ATP synthase, 89, 89f, 94, 104, 
105, 105f
atrioventricular valve, 399
atrium (pl. atria), 399, 399f
auricles, of planarians, 311, 311f
Australian orchid, 552, 552f
australopithecine(s), 329f, 330
autoimmune disease(s), 465, 465f
autonomic system, 482
functions of, 482, 482f
structure of, 482, 482f
autosomal disorder(s), 212
characteristics of, 202–204
pedigree chart for, 200, 200f
autosomal dominant disorder, pedigree chart for, 
200, 200f
autosomal recessive disorder, pedigree chart for, 
200, 200f
autosome(s), 128f, 129
autotroph(s), 560, 571
auxin, 356, 359t, 373
effects of, 357
mode of action of, 356, 356f, 357
Aves, 324
avian influenza virus, 269, 269f
AV (atrioventricular) node, 400, 
400f, 409
axial skeleton, 502f, 503
axon(s), 385, 385f, 474, 474f, 
480, 480f
functions of, 475, 475f
myelinated, 475, 475f
unmyelinated, 475, 475f
AZT, 269
B
bacilli, 271, 271f
backswimmer, ecological niche of, 556, 556f
Bacteria. See domain Bacteria
bacteria, 261, 270–275
antibiotics from, 588
beneficial, 50
biology of, 271–273, 280–281
in biotechnology, 274, 281
chemosynthetic, 85n
denitrifying, 566, 566f
disease-causing, 265–266
environmental importance of, 273, 273f, 281
evolution of, 215–216
fermentation by, 107
in food science, 274, 274f, 281
functions of, 50
human diseases caused by, 274–275, 281
human gene production by, 68
medical importance of, 281
nitrifying, 566, 566f
nutrition of, 272–273, 272f, 280–281
pathogenic, 50
reproduction of, 271–272, 
272f, 280
structure of, 50–51, 51f, 66, 265, 271, 271f, 280
survival of, 280
transgenic, 175, 175f
bacterial cells, 67
bacteriophage, 267, 272
reproduction of, 267, 267f
balance, sense of, 498, 498f
balanced polymorphism, 241
ball-and-socket joint(s), 506, 507f
ball-and-stick model, 21, 21f
bark (tree), 345, 345f
barnacles, 316, 317, 317f
Barr body, 137, 139, 184, 184f
basal bodies, of cilia and flagella, 
63, 63f
base(s), 25, 26, 26f, 27
in nucleic acids, 41, 41f, 161f
strong, 25, 25f
base-pairing, complementary, 41, 41f, 164
basidium (pl., basidia), of mushrooms, 298, 298f
basketweaver’s disease, 301
basophils, 406t
bats, as pollinators, 294, 294f
Bax protein, 189
B-cell receptor (BCR), 460
BCR. See B-cell receptor (BCR)
beach(es)
and human habitation, 577
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
beach erosion, 577, 577f, 595
Beadle, George, 166
beads-on-a-string organization, 
113f, 124
HMS Beagle, 216, 216f
Beaumont, William, 417
bees, as pollinators, 294, 294f, 295
behavioral isolation, species and, 248–249, 248f
beta-carotene, and cancer prevention, 123
bicarbonate ion, 426
in carbon cycle, 567, 567f
bicuspid valve, 399, 399f
bilateral symmetry, 308, 308f
of echinoderms, 319
of flatworms, 311–312
bile, 418
bile duct, 418, 418f
binary fission, 271
binge-eating disorder, 448
binocular vision, 499
binomial name, 7, 13, 256
biodiversity, 7, 588, 593
agricultural value of, 588–589, 589f
consumptive use value of, 589–590, 589f
direct values of, 588–590, 593
indirect value of, 590–591, 
590f, 593
loss of, with deforestation, 578
medicinal value of, 588, 588f
bioethical issue(s), 12
acid precipitation as, 28
affordability of ADS drugs as, 470
alcohol use in pregnancy as, 110
animals used for laboratory research as, 336
antibiotic use and, 282
assisted reproductive technology and, 140
beach erosion as, 595
blood doping as, 412
cesarean section and, 532
in clinical trials, 14
and deafness as culture, 510
developmental biology and, 264
DNA fingerprinting and, 178
erythropoietin use by athletes as, 412
food and drink advertisements 
and, 454
fossil fuel energy in agriculture as, 96
genetic testing for cancer as, 194
genetic testing for cancer susceptibility as, 194
herbicide-resistant crops and, 376
human gene production by bacteria as, 68
human growth hormone therapy for short stature as, 492
intelligent-design theory and, 230
invasive species eradication 
as, 574
logging of old-growth forests 
as, 354
organ donation and, 394
organophosphate use as, 82
patenting of DNA sequences as, 214
persistent vegetative state and, 434
pesticide use as, 96
plastic vs. bioplastic as, 46
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis and, 196
protection of high-risk species as, 550
protection of unique trees as, 304
reproductive selection and, 244
sex selection as, 158
stem cell research as, 126
biogas, 275
biogeochemical cycle(s), 564, 565, 565f, 566, 566f, 571, 
590, 590f
biogeography, 219
Darwin’s study of, 220–221
bioinformatics, 209, 209f
biological magnification, 587, 587f
biological organization, levels of, 2, 2f, 378, 378f, 546, 546f
biological species concept, 246–247
biologist(s), 8f
biology, 8
biomass, 563
biomes, 568
bioplastic, 46
bioremediation, 273, 273f
biosphere, 2, 5, 12, 546, 568
Biosphere 2, 575–576
biotechnology, 175, 177
bacteria in, 274
biotic community, in chemical cycling, 564, 564f
biotic potential, 540, 540f, 541, 541f
bipedalism, 329, 330, 330f, 334
bird(s), 324, 334
anatomy of, 325
beak of, 325, 325f
breathing in, 424, 424f
circulatory pathways in, 398, 398f
diversity of, 306
evolution of, 321, 321f
feet of, 325, 325f
flight of, 325, 325f
as pollinators, 294, 294f
reproduction of, 513
temperature regulation by, 325
wading, ecological niches of, 
556, 556f
bird flu. See avian influenza virus
birth, 530
stages of, 529, 529f
birth control pill, 519, 519f, 519t
bivalve(s), 314, 314f, 333
black bread mold, 297, 297f
bladder
in female, 516f
in male, 514f
blade, 338, 338f
blastocoel, 526
blastocyst, 525, 525f
blastopore, 313, 313f
blind spot, 500
blood, 383, 405
chemical composition of, 15
components of, 383, 383f, 405, 405f
formed elements of, 405–406, 405f, 406t, 409
functions of, 405, 409
pH of, 26
blood clotting, 406–407, 407f
blood doping, 412
blood fluke, 312, 312f
blood pressure, 401
diastolic, 403
systolic, 403
blood type(s), 461, 461t
inheritance of, 149, 149f
blood vessel(s), 401–403, 401f, 409
blubber, 35
B lymphocyte(s) (B cell(s)), 457
characteristics of, 460, 460t
functions of, 457t, 460, 460f
body cavity, 308, 308f
of roundworms, 312, 312f
types of, 308–309, 309f
body stalk, 527
body temperature, 388, 455–456
regulation of, 390, 390f
body weight
energy balance and, 446, 446f
healthy, 446
bog moss, 287
bolus, 416
bomb calorimeter, 444, 444f
bone(s), 383
extracellular matrix of, 64
functions of, 502
structure of, 504, 504f
bony fishes, 321, 321f, 322, 322f
gills of, 425, 425f
book lungs, 317
botanist(s), 8f
bottleneck effect, 237
and microevolution, 237–238, 237f
botulism, 272
bowel, 419
brain
of annelids, 315, 315f
of cephalopods, 314, 314f
disorders of, 471–472
embryonic development of, 526
functions of, 471–472
human, evolution of, 330–331
injury to, 111–112
of mammals, 327
PET scan of, 18, 18f
of planarians, 311, 311f
of primates, 328–329
vertebrate, 478, 478f
brain stem, 478f, 479
BRCA-1 and BRCA-2, 142, 191, 194
breast cancer
BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 and, 142, 191, 194
development of, 121f
breathing, 424, 424f, 431
breathing center, in brain, 424
breathing rate, control of, 
426, 426f
bristlecone pine, 291
British land snails, disruptive selection in, 240, 240f
brittle star, 319f
bronchiole(s), 423
bronchitis, 423
bronchus (pl. bronchi), 423
brown algae, 277, 277f
bryophyte(s), 286, 287, 287f. See also moss
adaptations of, 287
uses of, 287
budding, in reproduction of 
sponges, 310
buffer(s), 26
bulbourethral glands, 514f, 515
bulimia nervosa, 448
bulk transport, 77, 79, 79f, 80
bullhorn acacia, and ants, mutualism of, 558, 558f
bundle sheath cell(s), in C4 
plants, 92
bursa, 506
bursitis, 506
butterfly(ies), 318
as pollinators, 294, 294f
C
calcitonin, 185, 486
calcium
dietary, 441t, 442
roles of, in human body, 493–494
calcium balance, regulation of, 486
calcium carbonate, 311f, 567
in otoliths, 498
calorie(s), 70. See also energy
Calories, 70, 74f
in food, 74f
Calvin cycle reaction(s), 86, 86f, 89f, 90–91, 90f, 94
in CAM plants, 93, 93f
in C4 plants, 92–93, 93f
calyx, 292, 292f
CAM, 93, 93f, 94
Cambrian explosion, 252t, 253, 
307, 307f
camera-type eye, 499, 499f
cancer, 16, 18, 18f, 111, 121
cell cycle and, 121–123
development of, 188, 188f
as failure of genetic control, 188–191, 192
gene therapy for, 210, 211
as genetic disease, 189, 192
genetic testing for, 194
hereditary forms of, 191, 191f, 192
inheritance patterns for, 191, 192
prevention of, 122–123
risk factors for, 179–180
treatment of, 122
cancer cell(s), 122f, 179
absence of telomere shortening 
in, 190
characteristics of, 121, 188, 188t
genetic changes in, 190, 192
motility of, 190
and normal cells, comparison of, 188, 188t
cancer in situ, 121, 121f, 188f, 
190, 190f
Candida albicans, 301, 523
cannabis, 477
CAPD. See continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD)
capillary(ies), 401, 401f
lymphatic, 403, 408, 408f
capillary exchange, 408, 408f, 409
capsid, 266, 266f, 268
capsule, 50, 51f, 66
carbohydrate(s), 33–34. See also glycolysis
dietary, 32, 32f, 437, 438–439, 438t
formation of, in photosynthesis, 83–84, 85, 85f, 86, 86f, 90, 90f. See also photosynthesis
functions of, 43
metabolism of, 106, 106f, 439
production of, by cholorplast, 60
structure of, 43
carbon, 16, 16f
carbon atom, 19f, 30–31
carbon cycle, 564, 567, 567f
bacteria and, 273
human activities and, 567
carbon dioxide (CO2)
in carbon cycle, 567, 567f
in citric acid cycle, 102, 103f
in photosynthesis, 85, 85f, 86, 86f
reduction of, 90, 94
transport of, 77, 426, 426f, 431
uptake of, by plants, 295, 591
carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation, 90, 90f, 94
in C4 plants, 92–93, 93f
carbonic acid, 26
Carboniferous period, 288, 288f, 291
carbon monoxide, 97
carbon skeleton, 31, 31f
carbon-to-carbon bonds, 31, 31f
carboxyl group(s), 31, 31f, 39
carcinogenesis, 121, 188, 188f
carcinoma, 121
cardiac cycle, 400
cardiac muscle, 384, 384f
cardiovascular disease, 447, 447f
cardiovascular system, 386, 386f, 395–396, 397
disorders of, 403–404, 409
functions of, 388
human, 414f
movement of blood in, 402, 402f
carnivore(s), 415, 555, 560, 560f
dentition in, 415, 415f
digestive system of, 418, 419f
and energy balance, 561, 561f
in food webs, 562–563, 562f
fungal, 298, 298f
mammals as, 327
plants as, 337–338
carotenoid, 87, 87f, 88
carotid body, 424
carpel, 292, 292f, 293, 363, 363f
carrier(s), of recessive traits, 
153, 200
carrier proteins, 38
carrying capacity, 535
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, 12, 587
cartilage, 383
extracellular matrix of, 64
torn, 506
cartilaginous fishes, 322, 322f
evolution of, 321, 321f
caspase(s), 120, 124
cassava, 295
cataracts, 499
catastrophists, 217
cat’s cry syndrome, 198
cDNA, 268, 268f
cell(s), 2, 48
diversity of, 48, 48f
eukaryotic, 50, 50f, 54–63, 66
microscopy of, 48–49, 48f, 66
multinucleated, 118
number of, in human body, 47
osmosis in, 78, 78f
prokaryotic, 50–53, 50f, 51f, 66
signaling between, 187, 
187f, 192
specialized, gene expression in, 182, 182f
types of, 47, 48, 48f
cell body, 474
cell cycle, 114, 114f, 124, 189
and cancer, 121–123
checkpoints, 124
control of, 119–120, 124
length of, 117
cell plate, 118, 118f
cell recognition proteins, 53, 53f, 66
cell-signaling pathway, 187, 187f
cell suspension culture, for plant propagation, 370
cell theory, 9, 50, 230
cellular reproduction, 112–113, 
112f, 124
cellular respiration, 61, 67, 74, 98–100, 98f, 108
anaerobic, 97
cellulose, 34, 43, 64, 67, 91, 341
structure of, 34, 34f
cell wall, 50, 51f, 55f, 64
of plants, 64, 64f, 67
primary, 64
secondary, 64
centipedes, 317, 317f
central nervous system (CNS), 473, 478–480, 478f, 494, 494f
embryonic development of, 
526, 526f
central vacuole, 55f
centriole(s), 54f, 62–63, 63f, 66, 
67, 116f
centromere, 113, 113f, 115, 115f, 116, 116f, 124
centrosome(s), 55f, 62–63, 62f, 63f, 67, 115, 116f, 124
cephalization, 308
of planarians, 311, 311f
Cephalochordata, 320, 321f
cephalopod(s), 314, 314f, 333
cephalothorax, of crustaceans, 
316, 316f
cerebellum, 478f, 479
cerebral cortex, 329, 478
functional regions of, 478–479, 479f
cerebrum, 478f
cervical cancer, 179, 180, 512
cervical cap, 520
cervix, 512, 516, 516f
cesarean section, woman’s refusal of, 532
CFCs. See chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs)
channel proteins, 38, 53, 53f, 66
Chara, 284
character displacement, 557, 557f
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, 172
Chargaff, Erwin, 160, 161
Chargaff’s rules, 161
checkpoint(s), in cell cycle, 119, 119f, 124
chemical bonds, 19–21, 20f, 21f
chemical cycling, 273, 273f
in ecosystems, 5, 5f, 561, 561f, 564–567, 564f, 571
chemical energy, 70, 74f, 83
formation from solar energy, 83–84. See also photosynthesis
chemical reactions, 21
chemistry, 16
chemoautotroph(s), 272, 272f, 275, 560, 566
chemoheterotroph(s), 272, 276, 
296, 306
chemoreceptor(s), 495, 495f
chemosynthetic bacteria, 85n
chemotherapy, 122
Chicago disease, 301
chiggers, 317
China, one-child policy of, 533–534
chitin, 34, 297, 316, 502
chlamydia, 523
Chlamydomonas, 277, 277f
chloride, as nutrient, 441t
chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs), 586
chlorophyll, 85, 86, 87, 87f, 88, 284
chloroplast(s), 55, 55f, 60, 67, 74, 74f, 85, 85f, 94
algal, 277, 277f
in C4 plants, 92
origins of, 276
structure of, 60, 60f
chloroquine resistance, 239
CHNOPS [acronym], 16, 30
choanocytes, 310, 310f
cholesterol, 35, 37, 43, 440
dietary sources of, 29
functions of, 29–30
intake of, 447
structure of, 37, 37f
Chondrichthyes, 321f, 322
chordate(s), 308f, 309, 309f, 313f, 320, 333, 334
characteristics of, 320, 320f
evolution of, 320–321, 321f
invertebrate, 320, 320f, 334
chorion, 327, 524f, 525, 528, 528f
chorionic villi, 528, 528f
chorionic villi sampling, 197, 
197f, 206
Christmas tree worm, 315
chromatin, 54f, 55f, 56, 56f, 66, 113, 113f, 116f, 124, 184
chromosomal disorder(s), genetic counseling for, 196–199, 212
chromosomal mutation(s), 198
genetic counseling for, 196–199, 212
testing for, 196–197, 197f
chromosome(s), 56, 66, 113, 116
abnormalities of
genetic counseling for, 196–199
testing for, 196–197, 197f
number of, 114, 115. See also diploid (2n) number; haploid (n) number
abnormalities of, 136, 136f
organization of, levels of, 113, 113f
structure of, abnormalities of, syndromes caused by, 198
chromosome map, 154–155, 155f
chromosome pairs, 128, 128f, 129
chyme, 418
cilia
of protozoans, 276
of respiratory passages, 422, 422f
ciliate, 278
ciliates, 276
cilium (pl., cilia), 63, 63f, 67
circulatory system
animals without, 396, 396f
of annelids, 315, 315f
of arthropods, 316
closed, 397, 397f, 409
open, 396–397, 397f, 409
circumcision, 514f
cirrhosis, 421
citric acid cycle, 99, 99f, 102, 103f, 106, 106f, 108
clade(s), 259, 259f
cladistics, 259, 264
cladists, 260, 260f, 262
cladograms, 259–260, 259f, 264
clams, 314–315
clam worm, 315, 315f
Clark’s nutcracker, whitebark pine and, mutualism of, 
558, 558f
class, 6, 256, 256f
classification systems, 261
clavicle, 503
cleavage, of zygote, 525, 525f
cleavage furrow, 117f, 118, 118f, 132f
climate, 5
regulation of, 591
climax community, 554, 554f
clitoris, 516f, 517
cloaca, 326
clonal plants, 370, 370f
cloning, human, 12
closed circulatory system, 397, 
397f, 409
club mosses, 287, 288, 288f
clumped distribution, 538, 538f, 548
cnidarian(s), 308, 308f, 309f, 310–311, 311f, 333
body forms of, 310f, 311, 311f
cnidocytes, 311
CNS. See central nervous system (CNS)
CoA. See coenzyme A (CoA)
coal, 84–85
formation of, 288
coast(s), and human habitation, 577
coastal pollution, 577
coastal redwood, 291, 337, 338
coated pit, 79, 79f
cocaine abuse, 477, 477f
cocci, 271, 271f
codominance, 149
codon(s), 166, 167, 167f, 172
and anticodons, pairing of, 168, 169f, 170, 170f, 171f
coelom, 308, 309, 309f, 414, 
526f, 527
of annelids, 315, 315f
coelomates, 308–309, 308f
coenzyme, 89
coenzyme A (CoA), 99
coevolution, 552, 552f
cohesion, of water molecules, 23, 23f, 349
cohesion-tension model, 349, 349f
coiled fiber, 113f
collagen, 38, 38f, 40, 64, 64f
synthesis of, 436
collar cells, 310, 310f
collecting duct(s), 428
collenchyma, 341, 341f
colon cancer, 179, 188
color blindness, 204
color vision, species distribution of, 499
columnar epithelium, 380–381, 380f
commensalism, 273, 556, 556t, 571
common ancestor, 247, 256
community(ies), 2, 5, 12, 546, 546f, 552, 571
diversity of, 553
ecology of, 552–559, 571
interactions in, 556–558, 556t, 571
keystone species in, 558–559
species composition of, 553, 553f
stability of, 558–559
compact bone, 382f, 383, 504, 504f
competition, 542, 542f, 556, 556t, 557, 571
competitive exclusion principle, 
557, 557f
complementary base-pairing, 41, 41f, 162, 163f, 164
complement system, 459, 459f
composting, 298
compound, 19
compound eye, 499, 499f
conchs, 314
conclusion, 9, 9f
condom
female, 519f, 520
male, 520
conduction deafness, 497
cone(s) (photoreceptor), 500, 500f
cone(s) (plant), 291, 291f
conifer(s), 291, 291f
conjugation, 272
connective tissue, 379, 379f, 382, 391
functions of, 382–383, 382f
structure of, 382–383, 382f
conservation, 7
in farming, 580, 580f
of water, 579, 579f
conservation biology, 547
consumer(s), 560, 560f, 571
contact inhibition, 120
continental drift, 254, 255f
and extinctions, 254
continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), 430
contour farming, 580f
contraceptive implant, 519, 519f, 519t
contraceptive injection, 519t, 520
contraceptive vaccine, 520
contractile ring, 118, 118f
control group, 8
controlled study, 10–11, 10f–11f
control systems, of human body, 386–387, 387f, 471–490
convergent evolution, 257
copepod, 317, 317f
copper, as nutrient, 441t
copper mosses, 287
copulation, 513, 513f
coral reef(s), 5, 276, 311f
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
cork, 341, 341f, 345, 345f
cork cambium, 341, 341f, 345, 345f
cork cell, 345
corn, transposon in, 172, 172f
cornea, 499, 499f
corn smut, 300
corolla, 292, 292f
coronary artery disease, 404, 404f
corpus callosum, 478f
corpus luteum, 517–518, 517f, 518f
cortex, 347
of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 347f
cotton, 295
cotyledon(s), 293, 293f, 340, 340f, 366, 366f
coupled reaction, 73, 73f
covalent bond, 20, 27
coxal bones, 503
crabs, 316, 317, 317f
cranial nerve(s), 473, 473f, 480
cranium, 503
Crassulaceae, 93
crassulacean-acid metabolism. 
See CAM
crayfish, 316
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 270
Crick, Francis, 160, 162, 162f
cru du chat syndrome, 198
cristae, 61, 61f, 67, 102f, 
104–105, 105f
critical length, of photoperiod, 
360, 361f
crocodiles, 324
Cro-Magnon, 332
crossing-over, 131, 131f, 132, 132f, 135f, 138, 154, 154f, 156
inversion and, 199, 199f
crustacean(s), 316, 333
anatomy of, 316, 316f
diversity of, 317f
cuboidal epithelium, 380–381, 380f
culture
definition of, 330
of Homo habilis, 330
cup coral, 311f
Cushing syndrome, 487, 487f
cutaneous receptor(s), 501, 501f
cuticle, 341
Cutshall, Cindy, 210f
Cuvier, Georges, 217, 228
cyanide, 76, 97
cyanobacteria, 84, 84f, 94, 272, 272f, 276
in lichen, 299
cycads, 291, 291f
cyclin(s), 119, 119f, 189
in cancer, 189, 189f
cyclin D, 189
cysteine, 39f
cystic fibrosis, 141, 202
characteristics of, 202, 202f
cytokine(s), 463
cytokinesis, 114, 114f, 117, 117f, 124, 133
in animal cells, 117f, 118, 118f
length of, 117
in plant cells, 118, 118f
cytokinin(s), 358, 359t
effects of, 358
cytoplasm, 50, 51f, 54f
of animal cells, 64f
of plant cells, 64f
cytosine (C), 41, 41f, 161, 161f, 
162, 164
cytoskeleton, 55, 55f, 62, 67
of animal cells, 64f
filaments of, 64f, 65f
cytotoxic T cell(s), 462–463, 463f
functions of, 457t
D
dam(s), and water supply, 579
Darwin, Charles, 216–218, 216f, 228, 238
On the Origin of Species, 223
study of biogeography, 220–221
study of geology and fossils, 219
and Wallace, 223, 228
Darwin’s finches. See finches, of Galápagos Islands
data, 9
analysis of, 9
daughter chromosome(s), 115, 115f, 116, 133, 133f, 135f
day-neutral plant, 360
DDT, 239, 587
deafness, as culture, 510
deamination, 421, 440
decapods, 317f
deceleration phase, of logistic growth, 541, 541f
deciduous trees, 339
Decker, Donovan, 210f
decomposer(s), 560, 560f, 
561, 590
bacterial, 273, 273f
fungi as, 298
deer, 327f
deficiency disorder, 436
deforestation, 578, 578f, 591
species lost due to, 575
dehydration reaction, 32f, 33, 35–36, 39, 39f
delayed allergic response, 465
deletion, 198, 198f
demographics, 539
and population growth, 539, 548
denatured enzyme, 40
dendrite(s), 385, 385f, 474, 474f
denitrification, 566, 566f
dense fibrous connective tissue, 382
density-dependent factor(s), 
542–543, 542f, 543f, 548
density-independent factor(s), 542, 542f, 548
dentition
human, 415, 415f
in mammals, 415, 415f
deoxyribose, 33, 41, 161f
depressants, 476
depth perception, 499
derived character, 256
desert(s), 568, 569f
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
desertification, 578, 578f
detrital food web, 562–563, 562f
detritus, 560, 562–563
deuterostome(s), 309f, 313, 333. See also chordate(s); echinoderm(s)
development of, 313, 313f
and protostomes, comparison of, 313
development, human, 524–529, 530
diabetes mellitus, 488
type 1, 446, 488
type 2, 446–447, 488
dialysate, 430
dialysis, 430, 430f
diaphragm, 424
diaphragm (contraceptive), 520
diaphragm (muscle), 327
diarrhea, 420
diastole, 400, 400f
diatoms, 84f, 276, 277f
diencephalon, 478f, 479, 480
diet, 437
balanced, 437
and cancer prevention, 123, 123f
healthy, 435–436, 436f
dietary supplement(s), 450–451
dieting, 446
digestive juices, regulation of, 421, 431
digestive system, 386, 386f, 431
of annelids, 315, 315f
of carnivores, 418, 419f
of earthworm, 414–415, 415f
functions of, 388
human, 414–421, 414f
anatomy of, 414–415, 415f
of planarians, 311, 311f, 312
of roundworms, 312, 312f
of ruminants, 418, 419f
dihybrid, 147, 154
dinoflagellates, 276, 277f
dinosaurs, 246f, 324
dioecious plants, 363
diploid (2n) number, 129, 129f, 131, 134, 135f, 138, 515, 515f
directional selection, 239, 239f, 242
disaccharide, 33
disruptive selection, 240, 240f, 242
distal tubule, 428
diuretics, 429
diversity, 553
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 4, 4f, 41, 43, 160, 160f
bacterial, 51
base-pair sequences, in 
phylogeny, 258
cloning of, 173
damage to, 16, 18
double helix of, 114, 115, 162, 162f, 163f
in eukaryotic cells, 54, 56, 66
mitochondrial, in human 
evolution, 331
nucleotide composition of, 161, 161f
in prokaryotes, 50–51
and protein synthesis, 166
repair, enzymes for, 172
replication of, 41, 113, 114, 114f, 162, 164, 164f, 176
complementary base-pairing in, 164
in eukaryotes, 164, 164f
joining in, 164
unwinding in, 164
and RNA, comparison of, 165t
sequences
patenting of, 214
similarities, in different organisms, 227, 227f
space-filling model of, 163f
structure of, 41, 41f, 160–163, 163f, 176
compared to structure of 
RNA, 43
template strand of, 167, 167f
testing, for genetic disorders, 205
transcription of. See transcription
viral, 266, 266f
X-ray diffraction pattern of, 
162, 162f
DNA chip, 205, 205f, 209
DNA fingerprinting, 174, 174f, 
177, 178
DNA ligase, 164, 173
DNA polymerase, 164, 174, 174f
DNA probe, 205, 205f
DNA technology, 173–175, 177
DNA unpacking, 183, 183f, 
184, 184f
Dolly, 180
domain(s), 6, 12–13, 256, 256f, 
261, 261f. See also three-domain system
domain Archaea, 6, 6f, 261, 261f
domain Bacteria, 6, 6f, 261, 261f
domain Eukarya, 6, 6f, 7f, 261, 261f
dominant allele, 145
dominant trait, 141
dormancy, 357
of seeds, 290
dorsal root ganglion, 481, 481f
double fertilization, 293, 293f, 
364f, 365
double helix, 41, 41f
double membrane
of chloroplasts, 60, 60f
of mitochondria, 61, 61f, 102f
doubling time, of population, 535
Down syndrome, 127, 136–137, 136f, 139
karyotype in, 197
prenatal diagnosis of, 197
translocation causing, 199
drip irrigation, 579, 579f
Drosophila melanogaster
chromosome map for, 155
chromosomes of, 154, 154f
genetic experiments with, 146–147, 147f, 152–153, 153f
wild-type, 146
drug(s), natural sources of, 588, 588f
drug abuse, 476–477
drug resistance, 239
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 204
characteristics of, 204, 204f
duckbill platypus, 305–306, 326
duodenum, 418, 418f, 420
duplication, 198, 198f
dyad(s), 130, 132–133
dynein, 62, 62f
dysentery, 274
amoebic, 278
E
ear(s), anatomy of, 496–497, 496f
Earth
carrying capacity of, for 
humans, 535
crust of, elements in, 16f
temperature of, greenhouse gases and, 583, 583f
earthworm, 315, 333
anatomy of, 315, 315f
biology of, 315
nervous system of, 473, 473f
eating disorders, 448, 448f
Ebola virus, 269, 269f
ecdysozoa, 309, 309f
echinoderm(s), 308f, 309f, 313f, 319, 333, 334
diversity of, 319, 319f
ecological niche(s), 556, 556f, 571
specialization of, 557
ecological pyramid, 563, 563f, 571
ecological succession, 554–555, 554f, 555f, 571
primary, 554, 554f
secondary, 554–555, 554f, 555f
ecologist(s), 8f
ecology, 546
as biological science, 547
of communities, 552–559, 571
of ecosystems, 560–567, 571
and environmental science, 547
of major ecosystems, 
568–570, 572
scope of, 546–547, 548
ecosystem(s), 2, 5, 5f, 12, 546, 546f, 552–553, 571
chemical cycling in, 5, 5f, 561, 561f, 564–567, 564f, 571
ecology of, 560–567, 571
energy flow in, 5, 5f, 74, 74f, 561–564, 561f, 571
indirect value of, 590–591, 590f
major, ecology of, 568–570, 572
preservation of, 7
primary productivity in, 570, 
570f, 572
ecotourism, 591, 591f
ectoderm, 309, 309f, 526, 526f
ectothermic animals, 324
edema, 430
EGF. See epidermal growth 
factor (EGF)
egg(s), 127, 128, 129, 129f, 512
in fertilization, 524, 524f
of reptiles, 324, 324f
testing, for genetic disorders, 
207, 207f
ejaculation, 515
ejaculatory duct, 514f, 515
elastic fibers, of extracellular matrix, 64, 64f
electrocardiogram (ECG), 400, 400f
electron(s), 17, 17f, 27
arrangement of, in atom, 18–19
electron acceptor(s)
in electron transport chain, 
104, 104f
in glucose metabolism, 99, 99f
in photosynthesis, 88, 88f, 94
electronegativity, 22
electron microscope(s), 48f, 49, 49f
electron model, 21, 21f
electron shell, 18–19, 19f
electron transport chain, 88, 88f, 
94, 99, 99f, 104–105, 104f, 108
element(s), 16, 27. See also 
periodic table
elephantiasis, 313
elongation cycle, of translation, 170, 170f, 177
embolus, 404
embryo
animal, 308, 308f
human
early development of, 525, 525f, 530
later development of, 526–527, 526f, 527f, 530
organ formation in, 526–527, 526f, 527f
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis in, 195–196
testing, for genetic disorders, 
206f, 207
of seed plants, 290f
embryonic period, 525
embryonic stem cells, in cloning, 181, 181f
embryo sac, 362, 362f, 365
of angiosperms, 293, 293f
emergency contraception, 520
emerging viruses, 269, 269f
emission, in ejaculation, 515
emphysema, 425
empty-calorie foods, 437
emulsification, 418
endocrine disrupters, 587
functions of, 388
endocrine gland(s), 420, 483, 483f
endocrine system, 387, 387f, 483–488, 483f
mode of action of, 472, 472f
endocytosis, 79, 79f, 80
endoderm, 309, 309f, 526, 526f
endodermis, 347
of eudicot root, 346f, 347
endomembrane system (ES), 54–55, 58, 59f, 66
endometrium, 517
blastocyst implantation in, 
525, 525f
in menstrual cycle, 518, 518f
endoparasite(s), 312
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 54f, 56f, 57f, 58f, 165
lumen of, 56f, 57f
membranes of, 57f, 58
endoskeleton, 307, 502
of vertebrates, 320
endosperm(s), 357
of angiosperms, 293, 293f
endospore(s), 272, 272f
endostatin, 190
endosymbiotic hypothesis, 276
endothermic, 325
energy, 3, 3f, 70. See also calorie(s)
in active transport, 78, 78f
from food, 74, 74f
in food, measurement of, 444, 444f
intake of, 444–445
measurement of, 70
output, 445
renewable types of, 584–585, 584f
requirements, of human body, 445
as resource, 576, 576f, 
583–585, 593
solar. See solar energy
yield of, from glycolysis, 106, 
106f, 108
energy balance, and body weight, 446, 446f
energy flow, in ecosystems, 5, 5f, 74, 74f, 561–564, 561f, 571
energy laws, 70, 74, 80
energy of activation (Ea), 75, 75f
enhancer, 186, 186f
Ensatina salamanders, 250, 250f
Entamoeba histolytica, 278
Entamoeba invadens, 278f
entomology, 318
entropy, 71, 80
cells and, 71, 71f
environment
definition of, 388
internal, 388, 388f
organisms’ response to, 3
and phenotype, 150, 150f
environmental impact, population growth and, 537, 537f
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 587
enzyme(s), 38, 53, 53f, 66, 75, 80, 166
acrosomal, 524, 524f
actions of, 75, 75f, 76, 76f
active site of, 76, 76f, 80
denatured, 40
for DNA repair, 172
and rate of reactions, 75, 75f
specificity of, 166
structure of, 40
enzyme inhibition, 76, 76f
eosinophils, 406t
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
epidermal growth factor (EGF), 120
epidermal tissue, of plants, 341, 
341f, 352
epidermis, 381, 381f
of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 347f
of plants, 341, 341f
epididymis, 514, 514f
epiglottis, 416
epinephrine, 487
episodic memory, 480
epithelial tissue, 379, 379f, 380, 391
functions of, 380–381, 380f, 381f
structure of, 380–381, 380f
equilibrium population, 544, 544f, 548
and vulnerability to extinction, 
545, 545f
erection, 515
ergot, 301
erythromycin, 274
erythropoietin, 405
use by athletes, 412
Escherichia coli, 6f, 50, 271, 271f
lac operon of, 182–183, 182f
in large intestine, 420
esophagus, 416, 420f
of annelids, 315, 315f
essential nutrient(s), 437
estrogen(s), 37, 37f, 43, 518, 530
action of, 120
in menstrual cycle, 518, 518f
in ovarian cycle, 517
ethanol, 300
ethyl alcohol, 33
production of, in fermentation, 107, 107f
ethylene, 359, 373
functions of, 359, 359f, 359t
etiolate seedlings, 361
euchromatin, 184
eudicot(s), 340, 340f, 351
flowers of, 362, 363, 363f
germination in, 368, 368f
roots of, 346f, 347, 347f, 352
seed development in, 366, 366f
stems of, 344, 344f
eugenics, 140
Euglena, 6f, 84f
Eukarya, 275. See domain Eukarya
eukaryote(s), 265
classification of, 261, 261f
DNA replication in, 164, 164f
evolution of, 253
gene expression in, 166–170, 171f, 183–186, 183f, 192
eukaryotic cell(s), 50, 50f, 54–63, 66
evolution of, 276, 276f
eutrophication, 565
evergreens, 339
evolution, 4, 215. See also macroevolution; microevolution
of bacteria, 215–216
evidence for, 224–227
anatomical, 226
biochemical, 227, 227f
biogeographic, 225
fossil, 224, 224f
genetic context for, 233, 242
gradualistic model of, 253, 254f
human, 328–332, 328f, 329f, 334
law of, 9
major events in, 252t
of modern humans, 331, 331f
pace of, 253–254, 254f
principle of, 9
punctuated equilibrium model of, 254, 254f
theory of, 9, 216–223, 228
exchange pool, in chemical cycling, 564, 564f
excretory system
of annelids, 315, 315f
of planarians, 311f
exercise, 447, 447f
benefits of, 507
exocrine gland(s), 420
exocytosis, 79, 79f, 80
exons, 168, 168f, 185, 185f
exophthalmic goiter, 486
exoskeleton, 307, 502, 503f
of arthropods, 316
of insects, 318
of molluscs, 314, 314f
exotic species, 559, 559f, 571
experiment(s), 8–9, 9f
experimental design, 8
experimental variable, 8
expiration, 424, 424f, 431
exponential growth, 540, 540f, 548
exponential growth phase
of exponential growth, 540, 540f
of logistic growth, 541, 541f
expulsion, in ejaculation, 515
external fertilization, 512, 513f
extinction(s), 7, 221, 246, 246f, 252t, 545, 548, 553
causes of, 588, 588f
mass, 7
potential, number of, 588
rate of, 7
vulnerability to, 545, 545f, 550
extracellular matrix, 64, 67
of animal cells, 64, 64f
extraembryonic membranes, 513, 524, 524f, 525, 526
of mammals, 327
of reptiles, 324, 324f
eye(s)
of arthropods, 316, 316f
of cephalopods, 314, 314f
human, anatomy of, 499, 499f
types of, 499, 499f
eyespots, of planarians, 311, 311f
Ey gene, 186, 186f
F
facial bones, 503
facilitated diffusion, 77, 80
FAD
as coenzyme, 99
in electron transport chain, 104, 104f
FADH2, 99, 99f
in citric acid cycle, 102, 103f
and electron transport chain, 
104, 104f
fairy ring, 298, 298f
fallopian tubes. See oviduct(s)
familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), 204
characteristics of, 204, 204f
gene therapy for, 210
family, 6, 256
family (taxonomic), 256f
family pedigree. See pedigree(s)
farming
conservation methods for, 580, 580f
contour, 580f
fossil fuel use in, 580
harmful practices used in, 580
no-till, 580f
fat(s), 35, 43
breakdown of, 35–36, 35f
dietary, 439–440
reduction of, 440, 440t
metabolism of, 106, 106f
synthesis of, 35–36, 35f, 106
fatty acid(s), 35, 36f, 43
formation of, in plants, 91, 91f
metabolism of, 106, 106f
omega-3 unsaturated, 447
feathers, 321f, 324
feedback inhibition, 76, 76f
female gametophyte, 362, 362f, 364, 364f, 365
of angiosperms, 293f
of seed plants, 290, 290f
femur, 503
fermentation, 33, 107, 107f, 108
fungal, 300
yeast, 300
fern(s), 284f, 288, 289
adaptations of, 289, 289f
diversity of, 289, 289f
evolution of, 285f
as food, 289
gametophyte of, 286, 286f
life cycle of, 289, 289f
medicinal value of, 289
uses of, 289
fertilization
of angiosperms, 293, 293f
in ferns, 289f
in human reproduction, 515, 516, 524, 524f, 525f, 530
of seed plants, 290, 290f
fertilizer(s), 566
controlled study of, 10–11, 10f–11f
in farming, 580
fetal cells, testing, for genetic disorders, 206
fetal development, 528–529, 528f, 529f, 530
fetus
age of viability, 511
testing, for genetic disorders, 206
ultrasound of, 206, 206f
fever, 455–456
F2 fitness, species and, 248f, 249
F1 generation, 144, 144f
F2 generation, 144, 144f
fiber, dietary, 29, 34, 91, 
438–439, 439f
fibrillin, 151
fibrin, 407, 407f
fibrinogen, 407, 407f
fibroblast(s), 382, 382f
fibrous protein, 40, 40f
fibula, 503
filaments, 363
in cytoskeleton, 55f
of stamen, 292, 292f
filarial worm, 313
filter feeder, 310
filtration, 428
fimbriae, 51, 51f, 66, 516, 517f
fin(s), of fish, 322, 322f
finches, of Galápagos Islands, 220, 220f, 251, 251f
niche specialization among, 
557, 557f
fishes, 334
circulatory pathways in, 398, 398f
classes of, 322, 322f
evolution of, 321, 321f, 322, 322f
fishing, 582, 582f
fitness, 222
five-kingdom system, 6, 13, 261, 262
flagellum (pl., flagella), 51, 51f, 63, 63f, 66, 67
amoebic, 278
bacterial, 271, 271f
of protozoans, 276
of sponges, 310, 310f
flame cells, of planarians, 311f
flatworm(s), 309, 309f, 311–312, 333
parasitic, 312, 312f
Fleming, Alexander, 8
flood(s), prevention of, 295, 591
flower(s), 285, 362
anatomy of, 362, 362f
complete, 363
evolution of, 285, 285f
incomplete, 363
parts of, 292, 292f
flowering plant(s)
asexual reproduction in, 369–372
eudicot, 340, 340f
flowers of, 362, 363, 363f
germination in, 368, 368f
roots of, 346f, 347, 347f, 352
seed development in, 
366, 366f
stems of, 344, 344f
life cycle of, 362, 364, 364f, 373
monocot, 340, 340f
flowers of, 362, 363, 363f
germination in, 368, 368f
roots of, 347
seed development in, 366
stems of, 344, 344f
as photosynthesizers, 85
responses in, 356–361
sexual reproduction in, 
362–368, 373
flowering plants, 284f. 
See also angiosperm(s)
evolution of, 285, 285f
gametophyte of, 286, 286f
fluid-mosaic model, 52, 66
flukes, 312, 312f
fluoroquinolone, 274
flycatchers, species of, 246, 247f
follicle(s), 517
number of, in human female, 517
primary, 517, 517f
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 516
in ovarian cycle, 517, 518f
follicular phase, of ovarian cycle, 517–518, 518f
food, 3, 3f
empty-calorie, 437
energy from, 74, 74f
production of, 96
as resource, 576, 576f, 
580–582, 593
food chain, 563, 563f, 571, 582
food guide pyramid, 449–450, 449f, 449t, 451
food poisoning, 274
food science, bacteria in, 274, 274f
food web, 562, 562f, 571
foot, of molluscs, 314, 314f
foraminiferan, 278, 278f
foreskin, 514f
forest(s)
in climate regulation, 591
ecological benefits of, 295
effects of fire on, 547, 547f
old-growth, logging of, 354
temperate, 568, 569f
primary productivity in, 
570, 570f
water-holding by, 591
fossil(s), 217f, 253, 253f
Darwin’s study of, 219, 219f
fossil fuel, 85, 567, 567f, 583
consumption of, 583
as energy source, 583
and global climate change, 
583, 583f
use in farming, 580
fossil fuel energy, in agriculture, 96
fossil record, 224
founder effect, 238
and microevolution, 238, 238f
fovea, 499f, 500
frameshift mutation, 172
Franklin, Rosalind, 160, 162, 162f
freckles, 233f
free radicals, 16
freshwater ecosystems, 568, 568f, 590–591
frog(s), 323, 323f
characteristics of, 306–307, 306f
frond(s), 289, 289f
fructose, 33
fruit(s), 284f, 293, 293f, 366
as food, 294f, 295
and seed dispersal, 294
types of, 366–367, 367f, 373
fruiting body, of mushroom, 
298, 298f
functional group, 31, 31f
fungus (pl. fungi), 6, 262, 296–301
and animals, differences between, 296, 296t, 306
antibiotic from, 588
biology of, 296–298, 302
carnivorous, 298, 298f
disease-causing, 300–301, 302
diversity of, 296, 296f
ecological benefits of, 298–299, 302
fungus—Cont.
economic benefits of, 300, 
300f, 302
as food, 300, 300f
in lichen, 299
mutualistic relationships of, 
299, 299f
and plants, differences between, 296, 296t
G
gain-of-function mutations, 189
galactose, 33
gallbladder, 418, 418f
gamete(s), of plants, 286, 286f
gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), 520–521
gamete isolation, species and, 
248f, 249
gametes, 512, 521
formation of, 127–128, 130, 130f, 134, 138, 148, 148f. 
See also meiosis
gametophyte(s), 286, 286f, 362
of ferns, 289, 289f
of mosses, 287, 287f
of seed plants, 290, 290f
sizes of, 286, 286f
ganglion, 480
gap junction, 65, 65f, 67
garden peas. See peas
Garrod, Archibald, 166
gaseous cycle, 564, 566, 566f
gas exchange
internal, 431
in humans, 426, 426f
in lungs, 431
in humans, 425, 425f
gastic reflux disease, 417
gas transport, in humans, 426, 426f
gastropod(s), 314, 314f, 333
gastrovascular cavity, of planarians, 311f, 312
gastrula, 526
gastrulation, 526, 526f
Gause, G.F., 557
G1 checkpoint, 119, 119f
G2 checkpoint, 119, 119f
gender, inheritance of, 152, 152f
gender selection, 158
gene(s), 4, 4f, 41, 143, 160, 160f. See also allele(s)
cloning of, 173
human, in bacteria, 68
and illness, 42, 42f
linked inheritance of, 154, 155f, 156
gene expression, 166–171, 171f, 176–177
control of, 180–187, 183f, 192
in eukaryotes, 183–186, 183f, 192
factors affecting, 141–142
mechanisms of, 182–187, 192
in prokaryotes, 182–183, 182f, 192
in specialized cells, 182, 182f
gene flow, 236
and microevolution, 236, 236f
gene linkage, 154, 155f
gene locus, 145, 145f
gene mutation(s), 172, 177, 221
and cancer, 179, 188, 188f
causes of, 172, 172f
effects of, 172
germ-line, 172
and microevolution, 235
somatic, 172
gene pool, 233
gene theory, 9
gene therapy, 12, 173, 210–211, 210f, 212
ex vivo, 210, 210f
in vivo, 210–211, 211f
sites of, 211f
genetically modified plants (GMP), 371
genetic code, 167
genetic counseling, 196, 196f
for chromosomal disorders, 196–199, 212
for genetic disorders, 
200–207, 212
future of, 208–209, 212
genetic disorders
characteristics of, 202–204
genetic counseling for, 200–207
future of, 208–209
testing for, 205–207, 212
genetic drift, 237
and microevolution, 237, 237f
genetic engineering, 173
of plants, 370–372, 373, 581
genetic marker, 205, 205f
genetic profile, 209
genetics, 546
genetic testing, 205–207, 212
for cancer susceptibility, 191, 
192, 194
genital herpes, 523
genital warts, 180, 522
genome, 208
human, sequencing of, 208
genome(s)
comparison of, 208, 208f
sequenced, 208, 208t
genomics, 208, 212
genotype, 145, 149
versus phenotype, 145, 145t
genus, 6, 247, 256, 256f
geological timescale, 252t, 253
geology, Darwin’s study of, 219
geothermal energy, 585
germ cells, 512
germination, 368, 368f
germ layer(s), 308–309, 308f, 
526, 526f
germ-line mutations, 172
Giardia lamblia, 278, 278f
gibberellin, 357, 359t, 373
effects of, 357, 357f
GIFT. See gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)
gills
of arthropods, 316
of chordates, 320, 320f
of crustaceans, 316, 316f
of fish, 322f, 323, 425, 425f
gill slits, 322f, 323
global warming, 295, 567, 583, 583f, 591
Globigerina, 278f
globular protein, 40, 40f
globulins, 166
glottis, 423
glucagon, 378, 420, 487
action of, 488, 488f
glucocorticoid(s), 487
glucose, 33, 33f, 43
blood level of, regulation of, 487–488, 488f
breakdown of, 98–99, 98f, 99f
in fermentation, 107, 107f
in cellular respiration, 98, 98f
in citric acid cycle, 102, 103f
formation of, in photosynthesis, 86, 90, 90f, 91, 91f
metabolism of, energy yield from, 106, 106f, 108
model of, 21
storage of, 34, 34f
glucose phosphate, 91, 91f
glutamate, 39f
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), 90f, 91, 91f
glycerol, 35, 43
formation of, in plants, 91, 91f
metabolism of, 106, 106f
glycogen, 34, 43
structure of, 34, 34f
glycolysis, 99, 99f, 100f, 101, 108
energy-harvesting steps of, 
100f, 101
energy-investment steps of, 
100f, 101
energy yield from, 106, 106f, 108
in fermentation, 107, 107f
glycoproteins, 52, 53, 53f
glyptodont, 219f
goiter, 486, 486f
golden-brown algae, 277, 277f. See also diatoms
Golgi apparatus, 54f, 55f, 58, 
59f, 66
gonadotropic hormones (FSH and LH), 484, 516
in ovarian cycle, 517–518, 518f
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 516
gonads, 512
gonorrhea, 265, 266, 523
gradualistic model, of evolution, 
253, 254f
grain(s), refinement of, 439
grana (sing., granum), 60, 60f, 85, 85f, 94
grasshopper, mouthparts of, 
318, 318f
grassland(s), 568, 569f
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
gravitational equilibrium, 498, 498f
gravitropism, 360, 360f, 373
grazing food web, 562, 562f
green algae, 277, 277f
in lichen, 299
and plants, comparison of, 284
greenhouse effect, 567
greenhouse gases, 583, 583f
green revolution, 581
groins, 577
ground pines, 288
ground tissue, 341, 341f, 352
groundwater, depletion of, 579
group(s), of atoms, 17, 17f
growth factor(s), 119–120, 124, 
184, 189
growth hormone (GH), 485. 
See also human growth hormone therapy
action of, 39
G1 stage, 124
of cell cycle, 114, 114f
G2 stage, 124
of cell cycle, 114, 114f
guanine (G), 41, 41f, 161, 161f, 
162, 164
gulls, 306
gummas, 523
gymnosperm(s), 286, 302
evolution of, 285f
gametophyte of, 286, 286f
H
habitat, 556
habitat isolation, species and, 
248, 248f
habitat loss, and extinctions, 
588, 588f
hagfishes, 322
hair, 321f, 326
hair cells, 496, 498
damaged, 497, 497f
normal, 497, 497f
halophile(s), 275, 275f
hantavirus, 269, 269f
haploid (n) number, 129, 129f, 131, 132f, 133, 133f, 134, 135f, 138, 515, 515f
Hardy, G.H., 234, 234f
Hardy-Weinberg law, 233f, 234, 234f
hart’s tongue fern, 289, 289f
hearing
noise and, 497, 497f
sense of, 496–497
heart, 396
anatomy of, 399, 399f
human, 399, 399f, 409
regulation of, 395–396
heart attack, 404
heartbeat, 400, 400f, 409
heartburn, 417
heart murmur, 399
heat, 71
heat of vaporization, 24, 24f
heavy metals, 586
disposal of, in biological communities, 590
in industrial waste, 587
helicase, 164
Helicobacter pylori, 417
helium, models of, 17, 17f
helix, 40, 40f
double, 41, 41f
helper T cell(s), 463
functions of, 457t
in HIV-infected (AIDS) patients, 466, 466f
heme, 185, 405, 426
hemodialysis, 430
hemoglobin, 38, 38f, 166, 405, 
426, 426f
structure of, 40
synthesis of, 185
hemolysis, 78
hemophilia, 204, 406
characteristics of, 204
Henslow, John, 216
hepatitis, 421
viral, 523
herbaceous plant(s), 344, 344f
herbicide(s)
bioremediation of, 273
in farming, 580
herbicide-resistant crops, 376, 581
herbivore(s), 415, 555, 560, 560f
dentition in, 415, 415f
and energy balance, 561, 561f
in food webs, 562–563, 562f
mammals as, 327
hermaphrodite(s), 312, 512
heroin abuse, 477, 477f
herpes, genital, 523
herpesviruses, latent infection, 267
heterochromatin, 184
heterotroph(s), 560, 561, 571
heterozygous, 145
high-density lipoproteins (HDL), 
30, 447
hinge joint, 506, 507f
hip (pelvic) girdle, 503
hippocampus, 480, 480f
hirudin, 315
histamine, 458
histone(s), 113, 113f, 184
histoplasmosis, 301
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 266, 463, 466, 512, 522
latent infection, 267
replication of, 268f
treatment of, 269
Hodgkin disease, treatment of, 588
homeostasis, 3, 377–378, 
388–390, 391
hominid(s), 328f, 329
evolution of, 329–331, 334
Homo, 6, 329f
Homo erectus, 329f, 330–331, 
331f, 334
Homo habilis, 329f, 330, 334
homologous chromosome(s), 128, 128f, 130–131, 130f, 135f, 145f
homologous structure, 226, 257
homologue, 128. See also homologous chromosome(s)
homology, 257
Homo sapiens, 329f, 331, 332, 332f
homozygous, 145
honeybees, 589
hookworm, 313
hormone(s)
action of, 39, 483–484, 483f
in cancer therapy, 122
and cell cycle, 120
and glucose metabolism, 34
plant, 356–359, 359t
horse(s), directional selection in, 
239, 239f
horseshoe crabs, 317, 317f, 588
horsetails, 288, 288f
housekeeping genes, 182
HPV. See human papillomavirus (HPV)
human body, organization of, 378–385, 391
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 525
vaccine against, 520
human development, 524–529, 530
Human Genome Project, 41, 208, 212
human growth hormone therapy, for short stature, 492
human immunodeficiency virus. 
See HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
human papillomavirus (HPV), 179, 180, 512, 522
human population. See population(s), human; population growth
humerus, 503
Huntington disease, 186, 203
characteristics of, 203, 203f
Hutton, James, 219
hyaline cartilage, 382f, 383
hybridization, 370
hybrid sterility, species and, 248f, 249, 249f
Hydra, 308, 310f
hydras, reproduction of, 512, 512f
hydrocarbons, 31, 31f
hydrochloric acid, 25, 25f
hydrogen, 16, 16f
atoms of, 19f
hydrogen (H) bond(s), 22, 22f, 27
in DNA, 162, 163f
hydrogen fuel, 585, 585f
hydrogen ion(s) (H), 22
in intermembrane space, 105, 105f
in photosynthesis, 89, 89f, 94
hydrolysis reaction, 32f, 33, 35f, 36, 39, 39f
hydrophilic molecule(s), 23, 31
hydrophobic molecule(s), 23, 31
hydropower, 584–585, 584f
hydrostatic skeleton, 308, 315, 
503, 503f
hydroxide ion (OH), 23
hydroxyl group(s), 31, 31f
hypertension, 403
hypertonic solution, 78, 78f, 80
hyphae (sing., hypha), 296–297, 296f
dikaryotic, 298
of lichen, 299, 299f
hypothalamic-releasing hormone, 484
hypothalamus, 478f, 479, 480, 480f, 483f, 484
and male reproductive system, 516
and pituitary, interactions of, 484–485, 484f, 485f
hypothesis, 8, 9f, 13
hypotonic solution, 78, 78f, 80
I
ice, density of, 24–25, 24f
ICSI. See intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
iguanas, 245–246
immediate allergic response, 465
immune system, 386, 386f, 456
barrier functions in, 458, 458f
cells of, 456–457
disorders of, 465–466
nonspecific defenses of, 458–459
organs of, 456–457
specific defenses of, 460–463
tissues of, 456–457
immunity, 456, 460
immunization(s), 464, 464f
implantation, 525, 525f
inborn error of metabolism, 166
inbreeding, 236
incomplete dominance, 149, 
149f, 156
disorders caused by, 204, 204f, 212
indisium, 289f
indoleacetic acid, 356–357
induced fit model, 76
induction, 526
inductive reasoning, 8
industrial melanism, 234–235, 
235f, 239
industrial waste, 587
infertility, 520–521
causes of, 520–521
sexually transmitted disease and, 511–512
inflammatory response, 406, 
458, 458f
inheritance
one-trait
Mendel’s experiments with, 144–145, 144f
modern genetics view of, 145
two-trait, Mendel’s experiments with, 146–147, 146f
inheritance of acquired characteristics, 217
initiation, of translation, 170, 170f, 177
initiator tRNA, 170, 170f
inner cell mass, 525, 525f
inner membrane
of chloroplasts, 60, 60f
of mitochondria, 61, 61f, 102f
innervation, 474
inorganic chemistry, 30
insect(s), 318, 333
anatomy of, 318
diversity of, 318, 318f
mouthparts of, 318, 318f
as pollinators, 294, 294f
respiration in, 423, 423f
vision in, 499, 499f
inspiration, 424, 424f, 431
insulin, 34, 185, 185f, 378, 420, 487
action of, 39, 488, 488f
production of, recombinant DNA technology in, 173f
integration, 476
integumentary system, 387, 387f
intelligent-design theory, 230
intercalated disks, 384
intercellular space, 65f
interkinesis, 133
intermediate filaments, 62, 67
intermembrane space, 102f, 105, 105f
interneuron, 474, 474f
internode, 338f, 339
interphase, 114, 114f, 115f, 116f, 124, 189
interstitial cells, 515, 515f
interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), 516
intervertebral disks, 503
intestinal enzyme(s), 418
intestine, of annelids, 315, 315f
intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), 521
intrauterine device (IUD), 519f, 
519t, 520
introns, 168, 168f, 171f, 185, 185f
invasive species, control of, 574
inv dup 15 syndrome, 198, 198f
inversion, 198, 199, 199f
invertebrate(s), 310–313, 333
invertebrate chordate(s), 320, 
320f, 334
in vitro fertilization (IVF), 520, 520f
and testing of embryo, 207
iodine, 486
as nutrient, 441t
iodine (131I), 18
ion(s), 20
ionic bond, 20, 27
iris, 499, 499f
Irish moss, 287
iron, dietary, 441t, 442
irrigation, 579, 579f, 580
isomer(s), 31
isotonic solution, 78, 78f, 80
isotope(s), 18, 27
radioactive, uses of, 18, 18f
IUD. See intrauterine device (IUD)
IVF. See in vitro fertilization (IVF)
J
Jacob, François, 182
jaundice, 421
jawless fishes, 321f, 322, 322f
jaws, evolution of, 321, 321f, 
322, 322f
jellyfish, 311, 311f
joint(s)
disorders of, 506
movement of, 506
overuse of, 506
replacement of, 506
types of, 506, 507f
jointed appendages, 308f, 309, 321f
of arthropods, 316, 316f, 333
of vertebrates, 323, 323f
jumping genes, 172, 172f
junction proteins, 53, 53f
junipers, 291f
K
kangaroo, 327
karyotype, 196, 197f
karyotyping, 196–197, 197f, 212
kelp, 84f
keratin, 38, 38f, 40, 62
keystone species, 558–559, 571
kidney(s), 427, 427f, 432. See 
also renal
functions of, 427
disorders of, 430
kilocalorie, 70
kinase(s), 119, 119f, 124
kinesin, 62, 62f
kinetic energy, 70, 70f, 80
kingdom, 6, 13, 256, 256f
kingdom(s), 261, 261f. See also 
five-kingdom system
kingdom Animalia, 6, 7f, 13
kingdom Fungi, 6, 7f, 13
kingdom Plantae, 6, 7f, 13
kingdom Protista, 6, 6f, 13
Klinefelter syndrome, 137, 137f, 139
koala, 326f, 327
Krebs cycle. See citric acid cycle
krill, 317
kuru, 270, 270f
kwashiorkor, 581
Kyoto protocol, 28
L
labia majora, 516f, 517
labia minora, 516f, 517
lac operon, 182–183, 182f
lactate, in fermentation, 107, 107f
lacteal, 418
lacuna, 383
lag phase
of exponential growth, 540, 540f
of logistic growth, 541, 541f
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 217–218, 222, 222f, 228
lambda phage, 267, 267f
lamprey, 322, 322f
lancelet, 320, 320f
land
as resource, 576, 576f, 
577–578, 593
semiarid, and human 
habitation, 578
subsidence of, 579
lanugo, 528
large intestine, 419–420, 420f, 431
larva, 307, 513, 513f
of amphibians, 323
of arthropods, 316
of echinoderms, 319
of roundworms, 312f
trochophore, 309
laryngitis, 423
larynx, 423, 431
of amphibians, 323
in males, 516
latent infections, viral, 267
lateral bud, 338f, 339
lateral line, 498
of fish, 322, 498f
law of conservation of energy, 70–71
law of independent assortment, 146, 147, 156
law of segregation, 145, 147, 156
law [term], 9
LDCs. See less-developed 
country(ies) (LDCs)
leaf (pl. leaves), 288, 288f, 338, 351
colors of, 87, 87f
compound, 342, 343f
diversity of, 338–339, 339f
functions of, 338–339
organization of, 342, 343f, 352
and photosynthesis, 85, 85f
senescence of, 358
simple, 342, 343f
structure of, 338–339, 338f, 
342, 343f
true, 366
twice compound, 342, 343f
leaf curl, 300, 300f
leaf vein, 338f, 340, 340f
learning, 480
leech, 315, 315f, 333
lemmings, 565, 565f
lemur(s), 328, 328f
lens, 499, 499f
lenticels, 345
leprosy, 265, 588
less-developed country(ies) (LDCs), 535, 535f
age structure diagram for, 536f, 537
crop development for, 581
fossil fuel consumption in, 583
industrial pollution in, 587
malnutrition in, 581
population growth in, 548
and environmental impact, 
537, 537f
population growth rate in, 535f, 536
resource consumption in, 576, 592
sewage treatment in, 587
leukemia, 121, 462
treatment of, 588
lichen, 276, 287, 299, 299f, 555
foliose, 299, 299f
fruticose, 299, 299f
layers of, 299, 299f
morphology of, 299, 299f
life cycle, 129
human, 129, 129f, 138
life history, 544
patterns of, 544, 544f, 548
life table(s), 539, 539f
ligament(s), 382
light
visible, 87, 87f
wavelengths of, 87, 87f
light micrograph(s), 48f
light microscope(s), 48–49, 48f, 49f
light reaction, 86, 86f, 87–89, 94
lignin, 64, 288, 341
fungal digestion of, 298
limb buds, 527, 527f
limbic system, 480, 480f
limulus amoebocyte lysate, 588
lineage, 328
linkage group, 154, 156
lions, 327f
lipase(s), 418
lipid(s), 35
blood levels of, 447
dietary, 32, 32f, 437, 438t, 439–440
functions of, 43
structure of, 43
synthesis of, 58, 58f
liver, 418
disorders of, 421
functions of, 420–421
livestock, domestic, 581–582, 581f
lizards, 324
lobe-finned fishes, 321, 323, 323f
lobster, 316, 317
anatomy of, 316f
lodgepole pine forest(s), effects of fire on, 547, 547f
logistic growth, 541, 541f, 548
practical applications of, 541
long-day plant, 360
loose fibrous connective tissue, 
382, 382f
lophophore, 309
lophotrochozoa, 309, 309f
lorises, 328
loss-of-function mutations, 189
low-density lipoproteins (LDL), 30, 447
lower respiratory tract, 423, 423f
Lucy, 330, 330f
lung(s), 321, 321f, 323, 422, 431
of amphibians, 323, 323f
gas exchange in, 425, 425f, 431
of mammals, 327
of reptiles, 324
lung cancer, 122
luteal phase, of ovarian cycle, 517–518, 518f
luteinizing hormone (LH), 516
in ovarian cycle, 517–518, 518f
Lyell, Charles, 219, 223
Lyme disease, 317
lymph, 403
lymphatic duct (right), 403, 403f
lymphatic organ(s), 456, 456f
lymphatic system, 386, 386f, 403, 409, 419
functions of, 388
lymphatic vessel(s), 403, 403f
lymph node(s), 403, 403f, 456, 
456f, 457
lymphocyte(s), 406. See also B lymphocyte(s) (B cell(s)); 
T lymphocyte(s) (T cell(s))
functions of, 406, 406t, 457t, 458–459, 460
lymphoma, 179, 462
lysis, 78
lysogenic cycle, 267, 267f, 280
lysosome(s), 54f, 58, 59f, 66, 459f
lytic cycle, 267, 267f, 280
M
MacArthur, Robert, 557
McClintock, Barbara, 172f
macaws, as endangered 
species, 588f
macroevolution, 246–252, 262
macromolecule(s), 32
macronucleus, of Paramecium, 
278, 278f
macronutrient(s), 348, 437
macrophage(s), 406, 457
functions of, 457t, 
458–459, 459f
mad cow disease, 270
magnesium, as nutrient, 441t
maidenhair fern, 289, 289f
maintenance systems, of human body, 386, 386f, 
413–432, 414f
malaria, 239, 265, 266
causative organism of, 
278, 278f
sickle cell disease and, 241, 241f
male gametophyte, 362, 362f, 
364, 364f
of angiosperms, 293f
of seed plants, 290, 290f
malignancy, 121, 190
malnutrition, 581
Malpighian tubule, 429, 429f
Malthus, Thomas, 222
maltose, 33, 33f, 43
mammal(s), 305–306, 326, 334
anatomy of, 327
carnivorous, 327
circulatory pathways in, 398, 398f
dentition in, 415, 415f
evolution of, 321, 321f, 326
herbivorous, 327
locomotion of, 327
reproduction of, 513
mammary glands, 321f, 326
mammogram, 121f
mantle, of molluscs, 314, 314f
mantle cavity, of molluscs, 314, 314f
Marfan syndrome, 151, 151f, 203
characteristics of, 203
marijuana, 477
marine ecosystem(s), 568, 568f
mariner transposon, 172
marine worms, 315, 333
marshes. See wetlands
marsupial(s), 326, 326f
of Australia, 225, 225f
geographic distribution of, 327
reproduction of, 513
mass extinction, 252t, 254
mass number, 17, 27
mast cell(s), 458
functions of, 457t
matrix, 382, 382f
mitochondrial, 61, 61f, 67, 102f, 105, 105f
matter, 16, 27
nature of, 16–21
M checkpoint, 119, 119f
MDCs. See more-developed country(ies) (MDCs)
meal planning, 449–451
mechanical isolation, species and, 248f, 249
mechanoreceptor(s), 496
medulla oblongata, 478f, 479
medusa form, of cnidarians, 311, 311f
megaspore, 362, 362f, 364, 364f
of angiosperms, 293f
of seed plants, 290f
meiosis, 127–133, 138, 145
in angiosperms, 293f
in ferns, 289, 289f
in fungi, 297, 297f
importance of, 131, 138
Mendel’s laws and, 148, 148f
and mitosis, comparison of, 134, 134t, 135f, 138–139
in mushrooms, 298, 298f
nondisjunction during, 136, 136f
phases of, 132–133, 132f–133f, 138
in plant cell, 362, 362f
in plants, 286, 286f
in plasmodial slime mold, 279, 279f
meiosis I, 130, 130f, 132–133, 132f, 138, 145
and mitosis, comparison of, 134, 134t, 139
nondisjunction during, 136, 136f
meiosis II, 130, 130f, 133, 133f, 
138, 524
and mitosis, comparison of, 134, 134t, 139
nondisjunction during, 136, 136f
melanoma, 122
melatonin, 479
memory, 480
loss of, 480
memory cell(s), 460, 460f
functions of, 457t
Mendel, Gregor, 142, 142f
Mendel’s laws, 142–148, 156
and meiosis, 148, 148f
and probability, 147
meniscus, 506
menopause, 128, 518
menses, 518
menstrual cycle, 518, 518f, 530
meristem, 341
mesentery, 309, 309f
mesoderm, 309, 309f, 526, 526f
mesophyll, 342, 343f
mesophyll cell(s), 85, 85f, 92, 93f
messenger RNA (mRNA), 56, 57, 57f, 66, 165, 176
codons of, 166, 167, 167f
formation of, 167, 167f, 171, 171f
mature, 168, 168f, 171f, 
185, 185f
in polyribosome, 169, 169f
primary, 168, 168f, 171f, 185f
processing of, 168, 168f, 171, 171f, 183, 183f, 184–185, 185f
translation of. See translation
metabolic pathway(s), 75, 80, 166. See also glycolysis
alternative, 106, 106f, 108
metabolism, 3
metal(s), 586
metamorphosis, 306f, 307
of arthropods, 316, 316f
of echinoderms, 319
metaphase, 114f, 115, 115f, 117f, 124, 134t
metaphase I, 132, 132f, 134, 
134t, 138
metaphase II, 133, 133f, 134t, 138
metastasis, 121, 121f, 188f, 190
meteorite(s), and extinctions, 254–255
methane, 21, 21f, 275
methanogen(s), 275, 275f
Methanosarcina mazei, 6f
metric system, 602
microbes, 265
microevolution, 232, 242
causes of, 235–238, 242
micronucleus, of Paramecium, 
278, 278f
micronutrient(s), 348, 437
microorganism(s)
beneficial, 2
fermentation by, 107
number of
on skin, 1
in soil, 1
microscope(s)
light, 48–49, 48f, 49f
scanning electron, 48f
transmission electron, 48f
microspore(s), 362, 362f, 364, 364f
of angiosperms, 293f
of seed plants, 290f
microtubule(s), 55f, 62, 62f, 67, 
115, 115f
in cilia and flagella, 63, 63f
9  0 pattern of, 62, 67
9  2 pattern of, 63, 67
microvillus (pl. microvilli), 49, 
418, 419f
of filter feeders, 310
midbrain, 478f, 479
Mifepristone, 520
milk of magnesia, 25
millipedes, 317, 317f
mineral(s)
as nutrients, 438t, 441, 441t
as resource, 576, 576f, 586, 
586f, 593
transport of, in plants, 
349–350, 349f
uptake of, by plants, 348, 3
48f, 352
mineralocorticoid(s), 487
mining, 586, 586f
mitchondrial Eve hypothesis, 331
mites, 317
mitochondrion (pl., mitochondria), 54f, 55, 55f, 60, 61, 66, 67, 74, 74f
in cellular respiration, 98, 98f, 99, 99f
functions of, 102f
origins of, 276
structure of, 61, 61f, 102f
mitosis, 111, 114, 114f, 115–116, 115f, 119, 119f, 124, 129, 129f, 138, 189
in animal cells, 115, 116–117, 116f–117f
length of, 117
and meiosis, comparison of, 134, 134t, 135f, 138–139
in plant cell, 115, 115f, 286, 286f, 362, 362f
mitotic spindle. See spindle
model, 8
mold(s), 6
molecular data, in phylogeny, 309
molecular formula, 20–21
molecule(s), 19
molluscs, 308f, 309, 309f, 313f, 314–315, 333
body plan of, 314, 314f
economic importance of, 315
molting, 309, 316
of arthropods, 316
monarch butterfly, metamorphosis of, 316f
monerans, 262
monkeys, 327f, 328, 328f
monocot(s), 340, 340f, 351
flowers of, 362, 363, 363f
germination in, 368, 368f
seed development in, 366
stems of, 344, 344f
monoculture, 580
monocyte(s), 406
functions of, 406, 406t
Monod, Jacques, 182
monoecious plants, 363, 363f
monomer, 32
monosaccharide, 33
monosomy, 136
monotreme(s), 326, 326f
mons pubis, 516f, 517
more-developed country(ies) (MDCs), 535, 535f
age structure diagram for, 
536f, 537
fossil fuel consumption in, 583
industrial pollution in, 587
livestock in, 581–582
population growth in, 548
and environmental impact, 
537, 537f
population growth rate in, 535f, 536
resource consumption in, 592
water use in, 578, 579f
morning-after pill, 520
morula, 525, 525f
mosaic evolution, 330
moss, 84f, 284f, 555. See also bryophyte(s)
evolution of, 285f
gametophyte of, 286, 286f
motor neuron(s), 474, 474f
motor output, 494, 494f
motor system(s), 502–506
mouth, 415, 420f, 431
movement, by organisms, 3
mRNA transcript, 166, 167, 171, 171f, 185
M stage, 124
of cell cycle, 114
mules, 249f
multicellular organism(s), 2, 308, 308f
sponges as, 310
multifactorial trait, 150
multiple sclerosis, 465
multiregional continuity hypothesis, 331, 331f, 334
muscle(s)
bone and joint movements made by, 506, 506f
contraction of, 493–494, 505, 505f
coupled reaction in, 73, 73f
embryonic development of, 526–527, 526f
proteins of, 166
muscle dysmorphia, 448
muscular dystrophy, characteristics of, 204, 204f
muscular system, 387
human, 387, 387f
muscular tissue, 379, 379f, 384, 391
functions of, 384
structure of, 384, 384f
types of, 384, 384f
musculoskeletal system
functions of, 502, 502f
structure of, 502, 502f
mushroom(s), 6, 7f, 296, 296f
biology of, 298, 298f
as food, 300, 300f
poisonous, 301
mussels, 314
mutagen(s), 172
mutation(s), 16, 235
mute swans, 574
mutualism, 556, 556t, 558, 558f, 571. See also lichen
myasthenia gravis, 465
mycelium (pl., mycelia), 
296–297, 296f
of black bread mold, 297, 297f
definition of, 296
mycorrhizal association, 348, 
348f, 555
mycorrhizal fungi, 299
mycoses, 301, 301f
myelin sheath, 385f, 474, 474f
MyoD, 186
myofibril(s), 505
myosin, 39, 62, 67, 166, 505
N
NAD, as coenzyme, 99
NAD, in electron transport chain, 104, 104f
NADH, 99, 99f
in citric acid cycle, 102, 103f
and electron transport chain, 
104, 104f
NADP, 94
as coenzyme, 89
production of, in photosynthesis, 88, 88f
NADPH, formation of, in photosynthesis, 86, 86f, 88, 88f, 89, 89f, 94
nasal cavity, 422, 431
native species, 559, 571
natural fertilizer, controlled study of, 10–11, 10f–11f
natural history, 547
natural killer (NK) cell(s), 459
functions of, 457t
natural selection, 4, 216, 218, 221, 221f, 228, 238, 242
evolution by, 238–242, 238t
types of, 238–239, 242
nautilus, 314, 314f
NE. See norepinephrine (NE)
Neandertal, 332
nectar, 292
negative feedback, 389, 389f, 
391, 486
human example of, 390, 390f
in hypothalamic-pituitary axis, 
484, 484f
mechanical example of, 389, 389f
nematocyst, 311
Nematoda, 312
nematodes, as food for fungus, 
298, 298f
nephridium, 315, 315f
nephron, 427, 427f, 428
nephron capsule, 428
nephron loop, 428
nerve(s), 385, 480, 480f
nerve cell(s), death of, 111–112
nerve cord, of chordates, 320, 320f
nerve deafness, 497
nerve impulse, 475
nervous system, 387, 472–483
of annelids, 315, 315f
of arthropods, 316
of cephalopods, 314, 314f
drug abuse and, 476–477
of earthworm, 473, 473f
of echinoderms, 319
embryonic development of, 
526, 526f
functions of, 388
human, 387, 387f, 473–483, 473f
ladderlike, 473, 473f
mode of action of, 472, 472f
of planarians, 311, 311f, 473, 473f
vertebrate, evolution of, 473
nervous tissue, 379, 379f, 385, 391
functions of, 385
structure of, 385, 385f
neural crest, 527
neural plate, 526
neural tube, 526, 526f
neuroglia, 385
neuron(s), 385, 474
types of, 474, 474f
neurotransmitter(s), 476, 476f
neurulation, 526–527, 526f
neutron(s), 17, 17f
neutrophil(s), 406, 458
functions of, 406, 406t, 457t, 458
newts, 323, 323f
niche(s). See ecological niche(s)
nitrates, in nitrogen cycle, 566, 566f
nitric acid, 552
nitrification, 566, 566f
nitrites, 123
in nitrogen cycle, 566, 566f
nitrogen, 16, 16f
atoms of, 19f
nitrogen cycle, 564, 566, 566f
bacteria and, 273, 273f
human activities and, 566
nitrogen fertilizer, 12, 551–552, 566
controlled study of, 10–11, 10f–11f
nitrogen fixation, 348, 551–552, 566, 566f
bacteria and, 273, 273f
noble gases, 17
node(s), of plants, 338f, 339
noise, effect on hearing, 497, 497f
nondisjunction, 136, 136f, 139
in oogenesis, 137
in spermatogenesis, 137
nonrandom mating, 236
and microevolution, 236, 236f
nonrenewable resources, 576, 593
nonvascular plant(s), 253, 287, 302. See also bryophyte(s); moss
norepinephrine (NE), 476, 487
normal flora, 2
notochord, 320, 320f, 526, 526f
nuclear envelope, 54f, 55f, 56f, 57, 58, 67, 116f
fragmentation of, in meiosis, 132, 132f, 133, 133f
inner membrane of, 56f
outer membrane of, 56f
nuclear pore, 55f, 56f, 57, 57f, 66
nuclear power, 583
nuclease(s), 418
nucleic acid(s), 32, 41, 43
and proteins, relationship 
between, 42
viral, 266, 266f
nucleoid, 50, 51, 51f, 66, 271
nucleolus, 54f, 55f, 56, 56f, 66, 116f
nucleoplasm, 56f
nucleosome, 113, 113f, 184, 184f
nucleotide(s), 41, 43
of RNA, 164
structure of, 41f
nucleus
atomic, 17, 17f, 27
cellular, 50, 54, 55f, 56–57, 57f, 66
structure of, 56, 56f
protozoan, 278, 278f
nudibranchs, 314, 314f
nutrient(s), 3, 3f, 436, 437, 437f. See also macronutrient(s); micronutrient(s)
in bread, 437, 437f
classes of, 438–444, 438t
organic, 5
nutrition, 436
bacterial, 272–273, 272f
human, 435–453
and health, 444–448
of plants, 348, 352
Nutrition Facts panel, 450, 450f
O
obesity, 439, 454
and cancer risk, 123
determination of, 444
disorders associated with, 446–447
obligate intracellular parasites, 266
observation, 8, 9f
ocean(s), primary productivity in, 570, 570f
octet rule, 19, 27
octopus, 314, 314f
oil(s), 35, 43
birds’ use of, 35, 35f
metabolism of, 106, 106f
monounsaturated, 36, 36f
plant, formation of, 91, 91f
polyunsaturated, 36
oil (petroleum), formation of, 288
oil spills, bioremediation of, 273, 273f
oligochaetes, 315, 333
omnivore(s), 415, 560
in food webs, 562–563, 562f
oncogene(s), 180, 189, 192
in cancer cells, 189, 189f
oncogenic viruses, 179–180
oocyte(s), 517, 517f
primary, 517, 517f
secondary, 517, 517f, 524, 525f
oogenesis, 128, 129, 517, 517f
nondisjunction in, 137
oogonia (sing., oogonium), 517, 517f
open circulatory system, 396–397, 397f, 409
operator, 183
operon(s), 182–183, 182f
opossum, 326f, 327
opportunistic population, 544, 
544f, 548
opportunistic species, 555
oral contraceptives. See birth 
control pill
order, 6, 256, 256f
organ(s), 2, 378–379
of human body, 386–387, 386f, 391
organ donation, 394
organelle(s), 54–55, 54f, 66, 276
algal, 277, 277f
energy-related, 60–61, 67
protozoan, 277–278, 278f
organic chemistry, 30
organic compounds
in industrial waste, 587
synthetic, 593
as pollutants, 586–587
organic molecule(s), 30–31, 30f, 43
of cells, 32–42, 43
organism(s), 2, 546, 546f
behavior of, 3
characteristics of, 12
classification of, 7, 12–13
elements in, 16, 16f
movement by, 3
response to environment, 3
sizes of, 49f
variations in, 221, 221f
organophosphates, 82
organ system(s), 2, 378–379
of human body, 386–387, 
386f, 391
control function, 386–387, 387f, 471–490
development of, 413–414
maintenance function, 386, 386f, 413–432
for reproduction, 
386–387, 387f
transport function, 386, 386f, 395–409
organ transplants
rejection of, 463
from transgenic pigs, 159–160
orgasm, 515
osculum, 310, 310f
osmosis, 70, 77, 77f, 80
cellular effects of, 78, 78f
Osteichthyes, 321f, 322
osteoarthritis, 506
osteoblast(s), 504
osteoclast(s), 504
osteon, 504
osteoporosis, 442, 504
otoliths, 498
outer membrane
of chloroplasts, 60, 60f
of mitochondria, 61, 61f, 102f
outgroup(s), 259
out-of-Africa hypothesis, 331, 
331f, 334
ovarian cancer, BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 and, 142, 191, 194
ovarian cycle, 517–518, 517f, 
518f, 530
ovary(ies), 363, 512
of angiosperms, 292, 292f, 293, 293f, 362f
in animals, 512
human, 516, 516f
overweight, determination of, 444
oviduct(s), 516, 516f
fertilized egg in, 525, 525f
ovoviviparous animal(s), 513
ovulation, 516, 517, 525f
ovule(s), 363
of angiosperms, 292, 292f, 293, 293f, 362f
of seed plants, 290, 290f
oxygen, 16, 16f
atoms of, 19f
in cellular respiration, 98, 98f
in electron transport chain, 104, 104f
production of, by plants, 83–84, 295
transport of, 77
oxygen deficit, 107
oxygen transport, 426, 426f, 431
oxytocin, 484, 486
oyster fungus, 298, 298f
oysters, 314
ozone layer, 87
thinning of, 586
P
p16, 189
p53, 119, 189
gene therapy with, 211
paleontology, 253
palisade mesophyll, 342, 343f
pancreas, 418, 418f, 431, 487
endocrine, 487–488
exocrine, 487–488
functions of, 420, 487–488
pancreatic amylase, 418
pancreatic duct, 418, 418f
pancreatic islets, 487
papaya ring spot virus (PRSV), 268
parallel evolution, 257
Paramecium, 278, 278f
competitive exclusion principle and, 557, 557f
parasitism, 556, 556t, 571
parasympathetic division, 482, 482f
parathyroid gland, 486
parathyroid hormone (PTH), 486
parenchyma, 341, 341f
parsimony, 259
parthenogenesis, 512
particulate theory of inheritance, 143, 145
parturition. See birth
passive immunity, 464
passive transport, 77, 80
Patagonian hare, 220, 220f
patent(s)
for DNA sequences, 214
for plants, 355–356
pathogen(s), 274
fungal, 300–301
pattern of inheritance, 200
PCBs. See polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
pearls, 315
peas, 294f, 295
Mendel’s experiments with, 142–147, 142f–147f
peat moss, 287
pectoral girdle. See shoulder (pectoral) girdle
pedigree(s), 200, 212
for autosomal disorders, 
200, 200f
for sex-linked disorders, 201, 201f
pedipalps, 317
pelvic girdle. See hip (pelvic) girdle
pelvic inflammatory disease 
(PID), 523
penguins, 306
penicillin, 8, 274, 588
mechanism of action of, 69, 76
resistance to, 275
penis, 514–515, 514f
pepsin, 417
peptide(s), 40, 43
degradation of, 39, 39f
synthesis of, 39, 39f
peptide bond(s), 39
peptide hormone(s), 484
mode of action of, 483–484, 483f
peptidoglycan, 271, 274
perennial plant(s), 339
pericycle, 347
of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 347f
period(s), of atoms, 17, 17f
periodic table, 17–18, 17f
peripheral nervous system (PNS), 473, 480–482, 494, 494f
peristalsis, 416, 417, 417f
periwinkle, rosy, medicinal value of, 588, 588f
permafrost, 568
persistent vegetative state, 434
pesticide(s), 12, 96
biological, 580f, 589, 589f
disposal of, in biological communities, 590
in farming, 580
as pollutants, 587
synthetic, natural alternatives to, 580f, 589, 589f
petal(s), 292, 292f, 363, 363f
petiole(s), 338, 338f
petroleum spills, bioremediation of, 273, 273f
PGD. See pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD)
P generation, 144, 144f
pH, 26, 27
of blood, 26
regulation of, 429, 432
of stomach, 15
phage. See bacteriophage
phagocytosis, 79, 80, 279
pharyngeal pouches, of chordates, 320, 320f
pharynx, 416, 420f, 423, 431
anatomy of, 416f
of annelids, 315, 315f
of planarians, 311f, 312
phenotype, 145
environment and, 150, 150f
genes and, 149
versus genotype, 145, 145t
phenylketonuria (PKU), 202
characteristics of, 202
testing for, 205
phloem, 288, 288f, 302, 340, 340f, 342, 342f, 345, 345f, 352
organic nutrient transport in, 350–351, 350f, 352
phosphate, 565
of nucleotides, 161f
phosphate group(s), 31f, 36, 41
of ATP, 72, 72f
phospholipid(s), 35, 36, 43
in membranes, 36, 37f, 43
structure of, 36, 37f
phospholipid bilayer, 36, 37f, 52, 52f, 66
phosphorus, 16, 16f
atoms of, 19f
as nutrient, 441t
phosphorus cycle, 564, 565, 565f
human activities and, 565
photoautotroph(s), 272, 272f, 
560, 560f
photoperiod, 360, 361f, 373
photoreceptor(s), 500, 500f
photosynthesis, 3, 5, 67, 74, 74f, 83–84, 94, 338
algal, 277
in bacteria, 272, 272f
C3, 92, 92f, 94
C4, 92–93, 94
CAM, 93, 93f, 94
equation for, 86
leaves and, 85, 85f
in lichen, 299, 299f
process of, 86–91, 86f. See also Calvin cycle reaction; light reaction
reactions in, 21
photosynthesizers, 83, 84, 84f, 551
flowering plants as, 85
multicellular, 6, 7f
photosynthetic pigment(s), 87, 87f
photosystem(s), 88, 88f, 94
phototropism, 360, 360f, 373
photovoltaic (solar) cell, 585
photovoltaic (solar) cell(s), 584f
pH scale, 26, 26f
phylogenetic tree, 256, 257f, 264
phylogeny, 256, 257f, 264
determination of, 257–259
molecular data used in, 257–259, 258f, 309
traditional versus cladistic view of, 260, 260f, 262
phylum, 6, 256, 256f
phytochrome, 361, 373
PID. See pelvic inflammatory 
disease (PID)
pigment(s), photosynthetic, 87, 87f
pineal gland, 478f, 479
pine trees, 291, 291f
adaptations of, 291
uses of, 291
pinocytosis, 79, 80
pinworm, 313
Pisum, 6
Pisum sativum. See peas
pitch, of sound, 497
pitcher plants, 337–338
pith, 345, 345f, 347
pituitary gland, 478f, 484. 
See also anterior pituitary; posterior pituitary
hypothalamus and, interactions of, 484–485, 484f, 485f
placenta, 513, 525, 527, 528, 528f
placental mammal, 327, 327f
placental mammal(s), 225
planarian, 311
anatomy of, 311, 311f
nervous system of, 473, 473f
plant(s), 3, 6, 84, 84f, 262
agricultural, genetic engineering of, 371–372, 371f, 372t
C3, 92, 92f, 93, 94
C4, 92–93, 94
CAM, 93, 93f, 94
carnivorous, 337–338
cellulose in, 34, 34f
cell wall of, 64, 64f
classification of, 284, 284f
clonal, 370, 370f
cloning of, 180, 180f
cone-bearing, 284f. See also gymnosperm(s)
diversity of, 284, 287–295, 302
dominant generation of, 286–287
drought-resistant, 579, 579f
ecological benefits of, 295
economic benefits of, 294f, 295
evolution of, 253, 284–285, 
285f, 302
flowering. See flowering plant(s)
fungal diseases of, 300, 300f
genetically modified
commercial products from, 372
future, 371, 372f
regulation of, 371, 371f
genetic engineering of, 370–372, 373, 581
growth of, 83
primary, 338
secondary, 341
hormones in, 356–359, 
359t, 373
importance of, for human life, 283–284
life cycle of, 286–287, 286f
medicinal value of, 588, 588f
metabolic pathways in, 91, 91f
nonvascular. See nonvascular plant(s)
nutrient transport in, 349–351, 352
nutrition of, 348, 352
organs of, 338–340, 338f, 351
patents for, 355–356
pioneer (opportunistic), 555
salt-resistant, 579
species of, 6
sympatric speciation in, 
250–251, 250f
plant—Cont.
tissues of, 341–342, 352
transgenic, 175, 175f, 268, 371, 371f, 581
transplantation of, 339
tropisms of, 360, 360f, 373
vacuoles of, 59, 59f
vascular. See vascular plant(s)
woody, 345, 345f
plant cell(s), 67, 341–342, 352
cytokinesis in, 118, 118f
mitosis in, 115, 115f
osmosis in, 78, 78f
structure of, 55f
plant kingdom, 6, 7f
plant virus(es), 268, 268f
plaque
in atherosclerosis, 36
atherosclerotic, 404, 404f, 447
cytoplasmic, 65, 65f
plasma, 383, 383f, 405, 405f, 409
plasma cell(s), functions of, 
457t, 460
plasma membrane, 36, 37f, 43, 50, 51f, 52–53, 52f, 54f, 55f, 66, 116f
channels of, 65f
functions of, 77
molecular transport across, 77
plasma proteins, 166
plasmid, 173, 271, 272
plasmodesmata (sing., plasmodesma), 64, 64f, 67, 268
plasmodium, 279, 279f
Plasmodium, 278, 278f
plasmolysis, 78
plastic(s)
biodegradable, 46
disposal of, 46
manufacture of, 46
platelet(s), 383, 383f, 406
functions of, 406, 406t
plate tectonics, 254, 255f
Platyhelminthes, 311
pleated sheet, 40, 40f
pleiotropy, 151, 156
PNS. See peripheral nervous 
system (PNS)
point mutation, 172
polar covalent bond, 27
polar molecule(s), 22, 22f
polio, 265
pollen, 292
dispersal of, 294
pollen grain, 287, 290, 290f, 362, 362f, 364, 364f, 
365, 365f
pollen sac, of angiosperms, 293f
pollen tube, 290, 290f, 293, 293f, 362, 364f
pollination, 290, 290f, 365, 
552, 552f
by wildlife, 589, 589f
pollinators, 294, 294f, 295
pollutants, 273, 273f
pollution, 576
coastal, 577
disposal of, in biological communities, 590
polychaetes, 315, 333
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 587
bioremediation of, 273
polyculture, 580f
polygenic inheritance, 150, 150f, 156
polylactide, 46
polymer(s), 32, 32f, 43
polymerase(s), 266
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 174, 174f, 177
for fetal DNA, 206
polymorphism, 241
polyp(s), 420
polypeptide(s), 40, 43
synthesis of, 170, 170f, 171, 171f
polyp form, of cnidarians, 310f, 
311, 311f
polyploidy, 250
polyribosome, 57, 169, 169f
polysaccharide(s), 34
energy storage as, 34
of extracellular matrix, 64, 64f
structural role of, 34
polyspermy, 524
pons, 478f, 479
population(s), 2, 5, 12, 232, 546, 546f
age structure diagram for, 536f, 537, 539, 539f, 548
characteristics of, 538–543, 548
distribution patterns of, 538, 
538f, 548
human, 247, 247f, 534–538, 548
of world, 533
postreproductive members of, 
539, 539f
prereproductive members of, 
539, 539f
reproductive members of, 539, 539f
variations in, 232, 232f
maintenance of, 240–242
population density, 538, 548
population genetics, 233
population growth, 538–540
competition and, 542, 542f
control of, 533–534
demographics and, 539, 548
and environmental impact, 537, 537f, 548
future, 535, 535f, 548
patterns of, 540–541, 540f, 
541f, 548
predation and, 543, 543f
present, 534, 534f
regulation of, 542–543, 548
density-dependent factors and, 542–543, 542f, 543f, 548
density-independent factors and, 542, 542f, 548
population growth rate(s), 534, 535, 535f, 538–539
Porifera, 310
porphyria, 151
portal system, 403
hepatic, 421, 421f
Portuguese man-of-war, 311f
positron emission tomography (PET), 18, 18f
postanal tail, 320, 320f
posterior pituitary, 485, 485f
postzygotic isolating mechanism, 248f, 249, 249f, 262
potassium, as nutrient, 441t
potatoes, 295
potential energy, 70, 70f, 80
prairie, 568, 569f
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
predation, 543, 543f, 556, 556t, 571
predator-prey population cycles, 
543, 543f
prefrontal area, 479
pregnancy, alcohol use in, 110
pregnancy test, 525
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), 195–196
premature infant(s), 413–414
preparatory (prep) reaction, 99, 99f, 102, 108
pressure-flow model, 350, 350f, 
351, 351f
prezygotic isolating mechanism, 248, 248f, 262
primary motor area, 478
primary productivity, 570, 570f, 572
primary sensory area, 478
primary succession, 554–555, 554f
primate(s)
anatomy of, 328
evolution of, 328, 328f
primer(s), in polymerase chain reaction, 174, 174f
primitive character, 256
principle, 9
prion, 270, 280
PRL. See prolactin (PRL)
producer(s), 560, 560f, 561, 571
product, 21
progesterone, 518, 530
in menstrual cycle, 518, 518f
in ovarian cycle, 517–518
proglottids, 312
prognosis, 121
programmed cell death. See apoptosis
prokaryote(s), 6, 265, 270–275, 280–281
classification of, 261, 261f
evolution of, 253
gene expression in, 182–183, 
182f, 192
lysogenic cycle in, 267, 267f
lytic cycle in, 267, 267f
and viruses, comparison of, 280
prokaryotic cell(s), 50–53, 50f, 
51f, 66
prolactin (PRL), 484
promoter, 167, 182f, 183
property, 16
prophage, 267
prophase, 114f, 115, 115f, 116f, 
124, 134t
prophase I, 132, 132f, 134t, 138
prophase II, 133, 133f, 134t, 138
proprioceptor(s), 501
prosimian(s), 328, 328f, 329
prostate cancer, 515
prostate gland, 514f, 515
protease inhibitors, 269
protein(s), 38
activity of, 183, 183f, 185, 185f
cellular, 29, 56–57
functions of, 38–39
contractile, 38f, 39
dietary, 32, 32f, 437, 438t, 440–441
in less-developed countries, 581
in more-developed 
countries, 581
plant sources of, 440, 440f
of extracellular matrix, 64, 64f
functions of, 43, 166
membrane, 52
diversity of, 53, 53f
functions of, 53
metabolism of, 106, 106f
and nucleic acids, relationship between, 42
primary structure of, 40, 40f, 43, 166, 166f
quaternary structure of, 40, 40f, 43
regulatory, 39
secondary structure of, 40, 40f, 43, 166, 166f
shape of, 40
structural, 38, 38f
structure of, 43, 166, 166f
synthesis of, 57, 58f, 66, 165, 166
tertiary structure of, 40, 40f, 43, 166, 166f
proteome, 209
proteomics, 209, 212
proteosome(s), 185
prothallus, 289f
prothrombin, 407, 407f
protist(s), 6, 6f, 262, 276–279, 281
biology of, 276–279, 281
contractile vacuoles of, 59, 59f
photosynthetic, 84f
structure of, 265
protists, 261, 261f
proton(s), 17, 17f
proto-oncogene(s), 180, 189, 192
mutation to oncogenes, 189, 189f
in normal cells, 189, 189f
protoplasts, 369, 369f
protostome(s), 308f, 309, 309f, 
313, 333
and deuterostomes, comparison of, 313
development of, 313, 313f
protozoan(s), 266, 276, 277. See also protist(s)
biology of, 276, 277–278, 281
diversity of, 278, 278f
proximal tubule, 428
pseudocoelom, 309, 309f
of roundworms, 312–313, 312f
pseudocoelomates, 308f, 309, 309f, 312–313
pseudopod, 278
of protozoans, 276
pseudostratified epithelium, 380–381, 380f
P site, 169, 169f, 170, 170f
PTH. See parathyroid hormone (PTH)
puberty, 516
pulmonary artery, 399, 402
pulmonary circuit, 398, 402
pulmonary semilunar valve, 399, 399f
pulmonary trunk, 399
pulmonary vein, 399, 402
pulse, 400
pump(s), 79, 80
punctuated equilibrium model, of evolution, 254, 254f
Punnett square, 144, 147, 156, 233
pupil(s), 499, 499f
purine(s), 161f
pus, 406, 459
pyrenoids, 277
pyrimidine(s), 161f
pyruvate, 106, 106f
formation of, in glycolysis, 100f, 101
reduction of, in fermentation, 
107, 107f
R
R, 31, 31f
radial symmetry, 308, 308f
radiant energy, 87, 87f
radiation, 15
high levels of, 18, 18f
low levels of, 18, 18f
radiation therapy, 122
radioactive atom(s), 15–16
radiolarian, 278
radius, 503
radon gas, and cancer, 122
radula, of molluscs, 314, 314f
rain forest(s), 5, 568, 569f. See also deforestation
and human habitation, 578, 578f
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
random distribution, 538, 538f, 548
random mating, 234, 234f, 236
range, of species, 538
Ras, 187, 189
ras oncogene, testing for, 191
ray-finned fishes, 322–323, 322f
rays (fish), 322
RB gene, 191
reabsorption, 428
reactant, 21
reaction(s), chemical, 21
reaction center, of photosystem, 88, 88f, 94
receptacle, 362, 362f
receptor-mediated endocytosis, 79, 79f, 80
receptor proteins, 53, 53f, 66, 79f
of animal cells, 64f
recessive allele, 145
recessive trait, 141
recombinant DNA (rDNA), 173, 173f, 177
recombinant gamete, 154
red algae, 277, 277f, 287
red blood cells, 47–48, 383, 383f, 405
for blood doping, 412
functions of, 405–406, 406t
hemoglobin synthesis by, 185
red bone marrow, 456, 456f, 457, 504, 504f
reflex(es), 481
in human embryo, 527
reflex arc, 481, 481f
refractory period, 515
regeneration, 512
regulatory gene(s), 182f, 183
reindeer moss, 287
releasing hormone, 484
renal cortex, 427, 427f
renal medulla, 427, 427f
renal pelvis, 427, 427f
renewable resources, 576, 593
replacement reproduction, 537
replication. See DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), replication of
repressor, 182f, 183
reproduction, 3–4
asexual, 112, 112f. See also asexual reproduction
bacterial, 271–272, 272f
of bacteriophages, 267, 267f
cellular, 112–113, 112f, 124
human, 514–523, 530. See also assisted reproductive technology
control of, 519–520
ethical issues and, 140, 
158, 244
legal issues and, 140
on land, 513, 513f
sexual, 127–140. See also sexual reproduction
of viruses, 266–267
in water, 513, 513f
reproductive barriers, 262
and species, 248–249, 248f
reproductive cloning, 134, 180, 
181f, 192
reproductive system, 387
female, 516–518, 516f, 530
human, 387, 387f
male, 514–516, 514f, 515f, 530
hormonal regulation of, 
516, 530
of planarians, 311f, 312
reptile(s), 324, 334
circulatory pathways in, 398, 398f
diversity of, 324
evolution of, 321, 321f, 324
reproduction of, 324, 324f
temperature regulation by, 324
reservoir, in chemical cycling, 
564, 564f
resident bacteria, 2
resin, 291
resource(s), 538, 576–588, 576f, 593
resource partitioning, 557
respiration, 422
in birds, 424, 424f
in insects, 423, 423f
respiratory distress syndrome, 414
respiratory membrane, 425
respiratory system, 386, 386f, 422–426, 431
of arthropods, 316
development of, 413, 414
functions of, 388, 422, 422f
human, 414f, 422–426
respiratory tree, 431
restriction enzyme, 173
RET gene, 191
retina, 499, 499f
functions of, 500, 500f
structure of, 500, 500f
retinal (molecule), 500
retinoblastoma (RB), 191, 191f
retinoblastoma (RB) protein, 189
retrovirus, 268–269. See also HIV (human 
immunodeficiency virus)
reverse transcriptase, 268, 268f, 269
R group(s), 39, 39f, 40
rheumatoid arthritis, 465, 465f, 506
rhizomes, of ferns, 289
rhodopsin, 500, 500f
ribavirin, 269
rib cage, 503
ribose, 33, 41, 161f
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 56, 57, 66, 165, 169, 176
comparisons, in phylogeny, 258
phylogenetic tree based on, 
309, 309f
ribosome(s), 51, 51f, 54, 54f–58f, 56–58, 66, 165
bacterial, 271
ribosomal RNA in, 169, 169f
tRNA binding to, 168, 169, 169f, 170, 170f
ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, in Calvin cycle, 90f, 91, 94
rice blast disease, 300
rickets, 442, 442f
ringworm, 301, 301f
RNA (ribonucleic acid), 41, 43, 164
and DNA, comparison of, 165t
in eukaryotic cells, 56
function of, 164–165, 176
nucleotide composition of, 161, 161f
and protein synthesis, 166
structure of, 41, 41f, 164–165, 165f, 176
compared to structure of 
DNA, 43
viral, 266
RNA polymerase, 167, 167f, 182–183, 182f
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 317
rod(s) (bacteria), 271, 271f
rod(s) (photoreceptor), 500, 500f
room temperature, regulation of, 389, 389f
root(s), 288, 288f, 351
adaptations of, for mineral uptake, 348, 348f
diversity of, 339, 339f
edible, 295
fibrous, 339, 339f
lateral, 338f, 339
primary, 338f
prop, 339, 339f
and stems, comparison of, 347
root cap, 347
root hair, 338f, 339, 341f
root nodule(s), 273, 273f, 348, 566f
root system, 338, 338f, 339
root tip, 338f
of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 352
rose gardener’s disease, 301
rotational equilibrium, 498, 498f
rotator cuff, 503
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 54f, 55f, 58, 58f, 59f, 66
ribosomal attachment to, 171, 171f
roundworm(s), 309f, 312–313, 333
anatomy of, 312, 312f
biology of, 313
as food for fungus, 298, 298f
parasitic, 313
royal fern, 289, 289f
RU-486, 520
rubber production, 589f, 590
RuBP carboxylase (rubisco), 90, 90f, 92
rule of multiplication, 147
ruminants, 34, 417, 417f
digestive system of, 418, 419f
rusts (fungal), 300
S
saccules, 58, 58f, 496f, 498
sacrum, 503
St. Martin, Alexis, 417
salamanders, 323
salinization, 581
salivary amylase, 416
salivary gland, 416
Salmonella, 274
salt, 20
saltatory conduction, 475
salt balance, regulation of, 429, 432
saltwater intrusion, 579
sand dollar, 319f
SA (sinoatrial) node, 395–396, 
405, 409
saprotroph, 272, 298
sarcoma, 121
sarcomere, 505
SARS, 265, 266, 269, 269f
saturated fatty acid, 36, 36f, 43
savanna, 568, 569f
scales, of fish, 322–323
scallops, 314, 314f
scanning electron micrograph(s), 48f
scapula, 503
schistosomiasis, 312
Schwann cell(s), 385, 385f
science, 8–11
and society, 12
scientific method, 8, 9f, 13
scientific theory, 9, 9f
sclerenchyma, 341, 341f
scolex, 312
scorpions, 317, 317f
scrotum, 514, 514f
sea anemone, 310f
sea cucumber, 319f
sea lily, 319f
sea squirts, 320, 320f
sea star
anatomy of, 319, 319f
locomotion of, 319
sea urchin, 319f
seawalls, 577
secondary sex characteristic(s), 516
of males, 516
secondary succession, 554–555, 554f, 555f
secretion, 58, 428
by urinary system, 428
secretory vesicle(s), 58, 59f
sedimentary cycle, 564, 565, 565f
seed(s), 284f, 285, 287, 290, 366
anatomy of, 290, 290f
development of, in eudicots, 366, 366f, 373
dispersal of, 294, 367, 367f, 373
germination of, 368, 368f
production of, 290, 290f
seed plants, 284f, 285, 287, 302
biology of, 290
segmentation, 308f, 309
of arthropods, 316
segmented worms, 309, 315, 333. See also annelid(s)
selective agent, 216
selenium, as nutrient, 441t
semantic memory, 480
semen (seminal fluid), 515
semiarid land, and human 
habitation, 578
semiconservative, 164
semilunar valve, 399
seminal fluid. See semen 
(seminal fluid)
seminal vesicle, 514f, 515
seminiferous tubule(s), 515, 515f
senescence, 120, 358
senses, 494–501
chemical, 495
sensory input, 494, 494f
to brain, 501, 501f
sensory neuron(s), 474, 474f
sensory organs, of cephalopods, 
314, 314f
sepal(s), 292, 292f, 363, 363f
septum, 399
Sertoli cells, 515, 515f
serum, 407
setae, of annelids, 315, 315f
severe acute respiratory syndrome. See SARS
severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), gene therapy 
for, 210
sewage, 587
bioremediation of, 273, 273f
sex chromosome(s), 128f, 129. See also X chromosome; 
Y chromosome
genes of, 141
number of, abnormalities of, 137, 137f, 139
sex hormones, 35, 37, 37f, 43
sex-linked inheritance, 152–153, 156
pedigree for, 201, 201f
sex pili, 51, 51f, 66, 272
sexually transmitted disease(s) 
(STDs), 266, 511–512, 522–523, 530
bacterial, 523
prevention of, 523f
viral, 522–523
sexual reproduction, 272, 
512–513, 530
in angiosperms, 293, 293f, 294
of animals, 306
in flowering plants, 362–368, 373
fungal, 297, 297f
of mushrooms, 298, 298f
in plasmodial slime mold, 
279, 279f
of sponges, 310
sexual selection, 231–232, 236
sharks, 322, 322f
shell, of molluscs, 314, 314f
Shigella dysenteriae, 274
shoot system, 338, 338f, 339
short-day plant, 360
short stature, human growth hormone therapy for, 492
shoulder (pectoral) girdle, 503
shrimp, 316, 317, 317f
sickle cell disease, 42, 42f, 141, 151, 172, 203
as balanced polymorphism, 241–242, 242t
characteristics of, 203, 203f
geographic distribution of, 241, 241f
and malaria, 241, 241f
sieve plate, 319, 319f, 342f
sieve-tube member, 342
signal(s), 119
external, and cell cycle, 119, 124
internal, and cell cycle, 119, 124
signal transduction pathway, 187, 187f, 192
simple diffusion, 77, 77f, 80
simple goiter, 486
sinus(es), 422
sister chromatid(s), 113–116, 113f, 115f, 116f, 128, 128f, 130–131, 130f, 131f, 133, 133f, 145f
skates (fish), 322
skeletal muscle, 384, 384f
contraction of, 505, 505f
functions of, 502
physiology of, 505
structure of, 504f, 505
skeletal system, 387, 387f
skeleton(s). See also appendicular skeleton; axial skeleton; endoskeleton; exoskeleton; hydrostatic skeleton
evolution of, 307
human, 502–504
skill memory, 480
skin
barrier functions of, 458, 458f
embryonic development of, 527
skin cancer, 15, 122
skin color, inheritance of, 150, 150f
skull, 503
sliding filament model, 505
slime mold, 276, 279, 279f, 281
plasmodial, 279, 279f
small intestine, 418, 420f, 431
anatomy of, 418f
length of, 413
nutrient absorption in, 
418–419, 419f
smell, sense of, 495, 495f
in sharks, 322
smoking, and cancer, 122
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 54f, 55f, 58, 58f, 59f, 66
smooth (visceral) muscle, 384, 384f
snails, 314
snakes, 324
tongue of, as sense organ, 
324, 324f
sodium, dietary, 441t
reduction of, 442, 442t
sodium chloride
formation of, 19, 20f
in water, 23
sodium hydroxide, 25, 25f
sodium-potassium pump, 79, 80
soil
loss (erosion) of, 580–581
prevention of, 591
salinization of, 581
solar cell. See photovoltaic 
(solar) cell
solar energy, 5, 74, 74f, 80, 87, 87f, 96, 561
human use of, 585
in photosynthesis, 85, 85f, 88, 88f, 94
transformation into chemical energy, 83–84. See also photosynthesis
solute(s), 77
solution(s), 77
solvent(s), 77
somaclonal variations, 370
somatic cell, 120
somatic mutations, 172
somatic system, 481
somites, 526–527, 526f
sori (sing., sorus), 289f
sound(s), characteristics of, 497
space-filling model, 21, 21f
Spanish moss, 287
speciation, 220, 246
models of, 250–251, 262
pace of, 253–254, 254f
species, 4, 6, 256, 256f
classification of, 256–261, 262
definition of, 246–249, 262
history of, 252t, 253–255, 262
number of, 1, 7, 253
reproductive barriers and, 248–249, 248f
species richness, 553
specific epithet, 256
sperm, 127, 128, 129, 129f, 511, 512
of ferns, 289, 289f
in fertilization, 524, 524f
head of, 515, 515f
middle piece of, 515, 515f
of mosses, 287, 287f
production of, 514
of seed plants, 290, 290f
tail of, 515, 515f
spermatogenesis, 128, 129, 
515, 515f
nondisjunction in, 137
sphincter, 417
spicules, 310, 310f
spiders, 317, 317f
spikes, viral, 266, 266f, 268
spinal cord, 473, 473f, 478
embryonic development of, 526
of vertebrates, 320
spinal nerves, 473, 473f, 481, 481f
spindle, 115, 115f, 116, 116f, 124, 132, 132f
cancer therapy directed at, 122
spindle equator, 115, 117f, 132, 132f, 133, 133f, 135f
spindle fiber(s), 116f, 132f
spindle pole, 115, 115f, 117f, 132, 132f, 133, 133f
spiny anteater, 326, 326f
spiral organ, 496, 496f
spirochete, 271, 271f
Spirogyra, 277, 277f
spleen, 456, 456f, 457
sponge(s), 308, 308f, 309f, 310, 333
anatomy of, 310, 310f
spongin, 310
spongy bone, 504
spongy mesophyll, 342, 343f
sporangium (pl., sporangia), 279, 279f, 297, 297f
of ferns, 289f
spore(s)
of black bread mold, 297, 297f
of ferns, 289f
fungal, 297, 297f
of mushrooms, 298, 298f
of plants, 286, 286f
of slime molds, 279
of water molds, 279
sporophyte, 286, 286f, 362
of angiosperms, 293, 293f
of ferns, 289, 289f
of mosses, 287, 287f
sporozoan, 278
sprains, 506
spring wood, 345, 345f
spruces, 291, 291f
squamous epithelium, 380–381, 380f
squid, 314
SRY gene, 137, 152
S stage, 124
of cell cycle, 114, 114f
stabilizing selection, 240, 240f, 242
stable equilibrium phase, of logistic growth, 541, 541f
stamen, 292, 292f, 363, 363f
Staphylococcus aureus, penicillin resistance in, 275
starch, 34, 43, 91, 91f
energy storage as, 34
structure of, 34, 34f
statocyst, 498, 498f
STDs. See sexually transmitted disease(s) (STDs)
stem(s) (plant), 338f, 339, 351
nonwoody, 344, 344f
organization of, 344, 344f–345f, 345, 352
and roots, comparison of, 347
woody, 352
stem cell research, 112, 126, 
181, 181f
sterility, undescended testes 
and, 514
sterilization, 519t
sternum, 503
steroid(s), 35, 37, 43
anabolic, 38
structure of, 37, 37f
steroid hormone, 483
mode of action of, 483–484, 483f
stigma, 363
of angiosperms, 292, 292f
stimulants, 476
stimuli, 494
stomach, 417, 420f, 431
human, anatomy of, 417, 417f
ruminant, anatomy of, 417, 417f
stomata (sing., stoma), 85, 85f, 341, 341f, 343f, 349, 349f
opening and closing of, 350, 350f
stoneworts, 284
strata, 217, 217f
formation of, 217, 218f, 219
stratified epithelium, 381, 381f
streptococci, 271, 271f
streptomycin, 588
striated, 384
stroke, 404
stroma, 60, 60f, 67, 85, 85f, 94
structural formula, 20–21
structural model, 21, 21f
style, 363
of angiosperms, 292, 292f
subatomic particles, 15–16, 17, 17f
subcutaneous fat, 439
suberin, 341
subsidence, 579
subspecies, 236, 236f
substrate, 75, 76, 76f
suckers, of leeches, 315, 315f
sucrose, 33–34, 43
formation of, 91, 91f
sugar(s), dietary, 438–439
reduction of, 439, 439t
sulfhydryl group(s), 31f, 39
sulfur, 16, 16f
atoms of, 19f
summer wood, 345, 345f
sun exposure, and cancer, 122
supercoil, 113f
superfund, 587
surface-area-to-volume ratio, 49, 66
surface tension, of water, 23, 23f
survivorship, 539, 539f
survivorship curve, 539, 539f
sustainable ecosystem, 575–576
sustainable society, 592, 593
characteristics of, 592, 592f
versus today’s society, 592, 592f
swallowing, 416f
swamps. See wetlands
swim bladder, 322
swimmerets, of crustaceans, 316, 316f
Swiss starlings, stabilizing selection in, 240, 240f
symbiotic bacteria, 273
sympathetic division, 482, 482f
sympatric speciation, 250, 250f, 262
synapse(s), 476
functions of, 476, 476f
structure of, 476, 476f
synapsis, 130, 131, 131f, 132, 135f
synaptic cleft, 476, 476f
synaptic vesicle(s), 476, 476f
synovial joint, 506, 507f
syphilis, 523
causative organism of, 271, 271f
systemic circuit, 398, 402
systemic lupus erythematosus, 465
systole, 400, 400f
T
T4. See thyroxine (T4)
taiga, 568, 569f
tail, of chordates, 320, 320f
tamoxifen, 122
tansfer RNA (tRNA), 165
tapeworm(s), 312, 312f
taproot, 339, 339f
tarsiers, 328
Tasmanian wolf, 327
taste (sense of), 495, 495f
taste buds, 495
Tatum, Edward, 166
taxol, 122, 295
taxon (pl., taxa), 256
taxonomy, 6, 256, 256f
Tay-Sachs disease, 58, 202
characteristics of, 202, 202f
testing for, 205
T-cell receptor (TCR), 462
TCR. See T-cell receptor (TCR)
technology, 12
telomerase, 190, 191
telomere(s), 120, 124, 190
telophase, 114f, 115, 115f, 117f, 118, 124, 134t
telophase I, 132, 132f, 134t, 138
telophase II, 133, 133f, 134t, 138
telson, of crustaceans, 316, 316f
template, 164
temporal isolation, species and, 
248, 248f
tendon(s), 382
tentacles
of cephalopods, 314, 314f
of cnidarians, 310f
terminal bud, 338, 338f, 339
termination, of translation, 170, 177
terrestrial ecosystem(s), 568, 
569f, 572
testcross, 144
one-trait, 144–145, 144f
two-trait, 146–147, 147f
testis (pl. testes), 512, 514, 
514f, 515
undescended, 514
testis-determining factor, 137
testosterone, 37, 37f, 43, 516
tetanus, 274
tetany, 486
tetracycline, 274, 588
tetrad(s), 130–132, 130f, 132f
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 477
thalamus, 478f, 479, 480, 480f
thalidomide, 528
theory, 9, 13, 230
theory of evolution, 9, 142, 216–223, 228, 230
therapeutic cloning, 181, 181f, 192
thermoacidophile, 275, 275f
thermodynamics, second law of, 
71, 71f
thoracic duct, 403, 403f
three-domain system, 6, 12–13, 256, 256f, 261, 261f, 262
thrombin, 407, 407f
thromboembolism, 404
thrombus, 404
thrush, 301, 301f
thumb, opposable, 328
thylakoid, 60, 60f, 67, 85, 94
thylakoid membrane, 60, 60f, 86, 86f, 271
organization of, 89, 89f
thylakoid space, 60, 60f, 85, 89, 
89f, 94
thymine (T), 41, 41f, 161, 161f, 162
thymus gland, 456, 456f, 457
thyroid cancer, inheritance of, 191
thyroid gland, 486
thyroid hormone(s), 486
thyroid-stimulating hormone 
(TSH), 484
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 484
thyroxine (T4), 486
tibia, 503
ticks, 317
tight junction, 65, 65f, 67
tinea, 301
tissue(s), 2, 378–379
true, 308, 308f
of cnidarians, 310–311
types of, 379, 379f
tissue culture, plant propagation by, 369–370, 369f, 373
tissue fluid, 386
tissue rejection, 463
T-lymphocyte(s) (T cell(s)), 457. See also cytotoxic T cell(s); helper T cell(s)
activation of, 462, 462f
characteristics of, 462, 462t
functions of, 457t, 460, 462
types of, 462–463
toads, 323
tobacco mosaic virus, 268, 268f
tone, of sound, 497
tonsil(s), 456
topsoil, loss of, 580
tortoises, Darwin’s study of, 221
totipotent, 369
toxin(s), bacterial, 274–275
toxoplasmosis, 278
tracer, 18
trachea (pl. tracheae), 423
in insects, 423, 423f
tracheids, 342, 342f
tract(s), 478
traditionalists, 260, 260f, 262
trait(s)
behavioral, inheritance of, 150
genetic, expression of, 141–142
multifactorial, 150
multiple-allele, 149, 149f
transcription, 166, 167, 167f, 171, 171f, 176, 183, 183f
transcription activator(s), 186, 
186f, 192
transcription factor(s), 186, 186f, 192
complex of, 186, 186f
transduction, 272
trans fats, 36, 436
transfer rate, 565
transfer RNA (tRNA), 165, 168, 176
function of, 168, 169f
initiator, 170, 170f
structure of, 168, 169f
transformation, 272
transgenic organism(s), 159–160, 175, 175f
translation, 166, 168–170, 171, 171f, 176, 183, 183f, 185
phases of, 170, 170f, 176–177
translocation, 170, 170f, 199, 199f
transmission electron 
micrograph(s), 48f
transpiration, 349
transport proteins, 38, 53, 53f, 66, 78f, 80
transport system(s), of human body, 386, 386f, 399–409
transport vesicle(s), 58, 59f, 171
transposon, 172, 172f
mariner, 172
tree(s)
oldest living, 291
unique, protection of, 304
world’s tallest, 337
Treponema pallidum, 271, 271f
Trichinella, 312f
trichinosis, 313
trichomoniasis, 523
tricuspid valve, 399, 399f
triglycerides, 43, 439
triiodothyronine (T3), 486
triphosphate, 72, 72f
triplet code, 167
trisomy, 136
trisomy 21, 136. See also Down syndrome
trophic level, 563, 571
tropical rain forest. See rain forest(s)
tropism, 360
trp operon, 183
true-breeding plants, 143
truffles, 299
Trypanosoma brucei, 278f
trypanosome, 278
trypsin, 418
tryptophan, 39f
TSH. See thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
tubal ligation, 519t
tube feet, 319, 319f
tuberculosis, 265, 266
skin test for, 465
tube-within-a-tube body plan, 414–415, 415f, 431
tube worms, 315
tubulin, 62
tumor(s), 121
benign, 121, 190, 190f
metastatic, 121, 121f, 188f
tumor suppressor gene(s), 189, 192
in cancer cells, 189, 189f
inactivation of, 189
tundra, 565, 565f, 568, 569f
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
tunicate(s), 320, 320f
turgid cell(s), 78, 78f
Turner syndrome, 137, 137f, 139
turpentine, 291
turtles, 324
T virus, 267, 267f
U
ulna, 503
ultrasound, fetal, 206, 206f
ultraviolet radiation, 15
umbilical cord, 527, 528, 528f
unicellular organism(s), 2
uniform distribution, 538, 
538f, 548
uniformitarianism, 219
unsaturated fatty acid, 36, 36f, 43
upper respiratory tract, 422–423, 423f
uracil (U), 41, 41f, 161f, 164, 165f
urea, 106
ureter(s), 427, 427f, 432
male, 514f
urethra, 427, 427f, 432
female, 516f
male, 514, 514f, 515
urinalysis, 413
urinary bladder, 427, 432
urinary system, 386, 386f, 
427–430, 432
filtration in, 428
functions of, 388
human, 414f, 427–430, 427f
reabsorption of solutes in, 428
secretion by, 428
urine, 427
formation of, 427–428, 
428f, 432
Urochordata, 320, 321f
uropods, of crustaceans, 316, 316f
uterine tubes. See oviduct(s)
uterus, 516, 516f
utricle, 496f, 498
UV. See ultraviolet radiation
V
vaccine(s), 464
for AIDS, 466
vacuole(s), 59, 59f, 66
protozoan, 278, 278f
vagina, 516, 516f, 517
vaginal sponge, 519t
vaginitis, 523
valence shell, 19, 19f
valine, 39f
vascular bundle, 340, 340f, 342, 
344, 344f
vascular cambium, 341, 345, 345f
vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), 190
gene therapy with, 210
vascular plant(s), 253, 284f, 285, 288, 302, 340, 340f. See also seed plants
cone-bearing, 291
evolution of, 285f
seedless, 288, 302
vascular system, of 
echinoderms, 319
vascular tissue
of eudicot root, 346f, 347
of plants, 284f, 285, 288, 288f, 338f, 341, 342, 342f, 352
vas deferens, 514, 514f, 515
vasectomy, 519t
vegetarians, 440
vegetative propagation of plants, 369, 369f
vein(s), 399, 401f
movement of blood in, 401, 401f
vena cava (pl. venae cavae), 399, 402, 403
ventricle(s), cardiac, 399, 399f
ventricular fibrillation, 400
venule(s), 399
vernix caseosa, 529
vertebral column, 503
embryonic development of, 526–527, 526f
vertebrate(s), 320–321, 321f, 334
brain of, 478, 478f
circulatory pathways in, 398, 
398f, 409
embryological development of, 
226, 226f
forelimbs of, 226, 226f
homologous structures of, 226, 226f
tissue types in, 379, 379f
vertigo, 498
vesicle(s), 54f, 58, 66
secretory, 58, 59f, 66
transport, 58, 59f, 66
vessel element, 342, 342f
vestigial structure, 226
Viagra, 515
villus (pl. villi), 418. See also microvillus (pl. microvilli)
vinblastine, mechanism of action 
of, 122
viroid, 270, 280
virology, 12
virus(es), 266–269, 280
animal, 268–269, 268f, 280
emerging, 269, 269f
enveloped, 268
genome of, 266
human diseases caused by, drug control of, 269, 280
latent infections, 267
oncogenic, 179–180
plant, 268, 268f, 280
and prokaryotes, comparison 
of, 280
reproduction of, 266–267, 280
structure of, 265, 266f, 280
visceral mass, of molluscs, 314, 314f
visceral muscle. See smooth 
(visceral) muscle
vision, 499–500
binocular, 499
in dark, 500
in insects, 499, 499f
vitamin(s), 438t, 442
deficiency of, 442
fat-soluble, 442, 443t
water-soluble, 442, 443t
vitamin A, and cancer prevention, 123
vitamin C, 436
and cancer prevention, 123
deficiency of, 436, 437f
vitamin D, deficiency of, 442, 442f
vitamin K, 407, 420
viviparous animal(s), 513
vocal cord(s), 423
in males, 516
volume, of sound, 497
Volvox, 277, 277f
vulva, 516f, 517
W
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 223, 228
Wallace Line, 223
warblers, niche specialization 
among, 557
warts, genital, 180, 522
waste(s)
industrial, 587
as pollutants, 587, 593
waste disposal, in natural 
ecosystems, 590
water, 551
adhesion property of, 349
cohesion property of, 349
conservation of, 579, 579f
density of, as ice, 24–25, 24f
fresh, sources of, 590–591
heat capacity of, 24
in human diet, 438t, 442
molecules
adhesion of, 23, 23f
cohesion of, 23, 23f
dissociation of, 25, 25f
oxidation of, in photosynthesis, 86, 86f, 88, 88f, 89, 89f, 94
properties of, 22–25, 27
purification of, in natural ecosystems, 590
as resource, 576, 576f, 
578–579, 593
as solvent, 23
structure of, 22, 22f
surface tension of, 23, 23f
transport of, in plants, 
349–350, 349f
water balance, regulation of, 429, 432
water consumption, 578, 579f
water intoxication, 69–70
water mold, 276, 279, 281
water supply(ies), 578–579
Watson, James, 160, 162, 162f
weight loss diets, 97–98
Weinberg, W., 234, 234f
West Nile virus, 269, 269f
wetlands
primary productivity in, 570, 570f
value of, 590
whales, 327f
evolution of, 224, 224f
wheat
dietary importance of, 284
fungal disease of, 300
whitebark pine, and Clark’s nutcracker, mutualism of, 558, 558f
white blood cells, 383, 383f, 406
functions of, 405–406, 406t
wild-type, 146
Williams syndrome, 198, 198f
wind power, 584, 584f
wood, 295, 295f, 345, 345f, 352
of pine trees, 291
wrasses, 512
X
X chromosome, 129, 152–153, 156
inactivation of, 184, 184f
X-linked disorders, 212
X-linked dominant disorder, pedigree for, 201
X-linked inheritance, 152, 156
pedigree for, 201, 201f
X-linked recessive disorder
characteristics of, 204
pedigree for, 201, 201f
XO. See Turner syndrome
XXY. See Klinefelter syndrome
xylem, 288, 288f, 291, 302, 340, 340f, 342, 345, 345f, 352
water and mineral transport in, 349–350, 349f, 352
Y
Y chromosome, 129, 152–153, 156
yeasts, 300
fermentation by, 107
yeast infection(s), 301
yellow bone marrow, 504f
Y-linked disorders, 201
yolk sac, 524f, 526f
Z
zinc, as nutrient, 441t
Z lines, 505
zona pellucida, 524, 524f
zone of cell division, of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 352
zone of elongation, of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 352
zone of maturation, of eudicot root, 346f, 347, 352
zonulysin, 499
zooflagellate, 278, 278f
zooplankton, 276
zoospores, 279
zygospore, fungal, 297, 297f
zygote
of angiosperms, 293f
of mosses, 287, 287f
of plants, 286, 286f
zygote(s), 129, 129f, 131, 512, 524
development of, 112f
zygote mortality, species and, 
248f, 249