Human Nutrition
Chapter
25
Outline
	 25.1	Nutrition
	•	Lack of a nutrient can upset homeostasis.436
	•	Balanced diets supply nutrients in proportions necessary for health.437
	25.2	The Classes of Nutrients
	•	The six classes of nutrients are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and water.438
	•	Carbohydrates provide direct energy for cells. Fiber, a nondigestible carbohydrate, is not a nutrient, but it has beneficial health effects.438–39
	•	Triglycerides (fats and oils) are a long-term energy source in the body. Only animal foods are sources of cholesterol.439–40
	•	Some proteins are a complete source of the nine essential amino acids, and some are incomplete sources.440
	•	Minerals and vitamins regulate metabolic activities.441–43
	•	Water participates in chemical reactions and helps maintain body temperature.442 
	25.3	Nutrition and Health
	•	Weight gain occurs if energy intake is greater than energy output.444–45
	•	Excess body fat increases the risk of diabetes type 2 and cardiovascular disease, as well as possibly certain cancers.446–47 
	•	Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are serious psychological disturbances.448 
	25.4	How to Plan Nutritious Meals
	•	Food guides and information in the Nutrition Facts panel on packaged foods can be helpful when planning nutritious meals and snacks.449–50
	•	Dietary supplements are taken to enhance health. Herbal and nutritional supplements can be harmful if misused.450–51 
Did you know that an extremely high-protein diet may eventually cause liver and kidney disease? That some vitamins can harm the body if taken in extreme excess? Or that trans fats are the worst possible kind of fat you can eat?
We hear a lot about health problems that can result from eating high-fat and high-cholesterol foods. While most individuals are aware that unsaturated fats are considered healthier than saturated fats, until recently the average person did not give much consideration to the role of trans fats in the diet. Trans fats are formed from liquid unsaturated fats to which hydrogen has been added to make them resemble a solid saturated fat, a process called hydrogenation. Why do manufacturers go through the trouble of creating trans fats when they could just use a natural saturated fat? The primary reason is that saturated fats must be listed on the Nutrition Facts panel of all food packages, the labeling that consumers rely on for information about a food’s content. However, trans fats do not have to be listed on the Nutrition Facts panel, and thus a food product may appear to be healthier than it actually is. 
Recently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has decided that trans-fat content must be disclosed on Nutrition Facts panels beginning in 2006. Furthermore, recent media coverage has made more people aware of the dangers of diets high in trans fat, and manufacturers of products high in trans fats are considering ways to lower the trans-fat content.
In this chapter, you will learn about the components of a healthy, balanced diet as well as some of the consequences of an unhealthy one. 
25.1		Nutrition
The vigilance of your immune system, the strength of your muscles and bones, the ease with which your blood circulates—all aspects of your body’s functioning—depend on proper nutrition (Fig. 25.1). A nutrient is a component of food that performs a physiological function in the body. Nutrients provide us with energy, promote growth and development, and regulate cellular metabolism. They are also involved in homeostasis. For example, nutrients help maintain the fluid balance and proper pH of blood. Your body can make up for a nutrient deficiency to a degree, but eventually signs and symptoms of a deficiency disorder will appear. As an example, vitamin C is needed to synthesize and maintain collagen, the protein that holds tissues together. When the body lacks vitamin C, collagen weakens, and capillaries break easily. Gums may bleed, especially when the teeth are brushed, or tiny bruises may form under the skin when it’s gently pressed. In other words, early signs of vitamin C deficiency are gums that bleed and skin that bruises easily (Fig. 25.2).
By learning about nutrition, you can improve your diet and increase the likelihood of enjoying a longer, more active and productive life. Conversely, poor diet and lack of physical activity are responsible for 400,000 deaths in the United States annually. Such lifestyle factors may soon overtake smoking as the major cause of preventable death. Everyone can benefit from learning what constitutes a poor diet versus a healthy diet so that we can choose foods that supply all the nutrients in proper balance.
Introducing the Nutrients
Several factors, including cultural and ethnic backgrounds, financial situations, environmental conditions, and psychological states, influence what we eat. A diet is composed of a person’s typical food choices. A balanced diet supplies all the nutrients in the proper proportions necessary for a healthy, functioning body.
There are six classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and water. An essential nutrient must be supplied by the diet because the body is not able to produce it or at least not in sufficient quantity to meet the body’s needs. For example, certain amino acids are essential nutrients.
Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are called macronutrients because the body requires relatively large quantities of them. Micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, are needed in small quantities only. Macronutrients, not micronutrients, supply our energy needs. Although advertisements often imply that people can boost their energy levels by taking vitamin or mineral supplements, the body does not metabolize these nutrients for energy. Water does not provide energy either. Therefore, foods with high water content, such as fruits and vegetables, are usually lower in energy content than foods with less water and more macronutrient content. 
Nearly every food is a mixture of nutrients. A slice of bread, for example, is about 50% carbohydrates, 35% water, 10% proteins, and 4% lipids. Vitamins and minerals make up less than 1% of the bread’s nutrient content (Fig. 25.3). No single, naturally occurring food contains enough essential nutrients to meet all of our nutrient needs.
Contrary to popular belief, so-called “bad” foods or “junk foods” do have nutritional value. If a food contains water, sugar, or fat, it has nutritional value. However, such foods as sugar-sweetened soft drinks, cookies, and pastries have high amounts of fat and/or sugar in relation to their vitamin and mineral content. Therefore, these foods are more appropriately called empty-calorie foods, rather than junk foods. Diets that contain too many empty-calorie foods will assuredly lack enough vitamins and minerals. 
25.2		The Classes of Nutrients
Each type of nutrient usually has more than one function in the body and can be supplied by several food sources (Fig. 25.4 and Table 25.1).
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are present in food as sugars, starch, and fiber. Fruits, vegetables, milk, and honey are natural sources of sugars. Glucose and fructose are monosaccharide sugars, and lactose (milk sugar) and sucrose (table sugar) are disaccharides. After absorption into the body, all sugars are converted to glucose for transport in the blood and use by cells. Glucose is the preferred direct energy source in cells.
Plants store glucose as starch, and animals store glucose as glycogen. Good sources of starch are beans, peas, cereal grains, and potatoes. Starch is digested to glucose in the digestive tract, and any excess glucose is stored as glycogen. Although other animals likewise store glucose as glycogen in liver or muscle tissue (meat), it is gone by the time an animal is eaten for food. Except for honey and milk, which contain sugars, animal foods do not contain carbohydrates. 
Fiber
Fiber includes various nondigestible carbohydrates derived from plants. Food sources rich in fiber include beans, peas, nuts, fruits, and vegetables. Whole-grain products are also a good source of fiber, and are therefore more nutritious than food products made from refined grains. During refinement, fiber and also vitamins and minerals are removed from grains, so that primarily starch remains. A slice of bread made from whole-wheat flour, for example, contains 3 grams of fiber; a slice of bread made from refined wheat flour contains less than a gram of fiber. 
Technically, fiber is not a nutrient for humans because it cannot be digested to small molecules that enter the bloodstream. Insoluble fiber, however, adds bulk to fecal material, which stimulates movements of the large intestine, preventing constipation. Soluble fiber combines with bile acids and cholesterol in the small intestine and prevents them from being absorbed. In this way, high-fiber diets may protect against heart disease. The typical American consumes only about 15 grams of fiber each day; the recommended daily intake of fiber is 25 grams for women and 38 grams for men. To increase your fiber intake, eat whole-grain foods, snack on fresh fruits and raw vegetables, and include nuts and beans in your diet (Fig. 25.5). 
Can Carbohydrates Be Harmful?
If you or someone you know has lost weight by following the Atkins or South Beach diet, you may think “carbs” are unhealthy and should be avoided. According to nutritionists, however, carbohydrates should supply a large portion of your energy needs. Evidence suggests that Americans are not eating the right kind of carbohydrates. In some countries, the traditional diet is 60–70% high-fiber carbohydrates, and these people have a low incidence of the diseases that plague Americans.
Obesity is associated with diabetes type 2 and cardiovascular disease, as discussed in Section 25.3. Some nutritionists hypothesize that the high intake of foods, such as those rich in refined carbohydrates and fructose sweeteners processed from cornstarch, may be responsible for the prevalence of obesity in the United States. These foods are empty-calorie foods that provide sugars but no vitamins or minerals. Table 25.2 tells you how to reduce dietary sugars. Other nutritionists point out that consuming too much energy from any source contributes to body fat, which increases a person’s risk of obesity and associated illnesses. Because many foods, such as doughnuts, cakes, pies, and cookies, are high in both refined carbohydrates and fat, it is difficult to determine which dietary component is responsible for the current epidemic of obesity among Americans. 
Many people mistakenly believe children become hyperactive after eating sugar. There is no scientific basis for this belief because sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose in the small intestine, and these sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream. The spike caused by their absorption does not last long. Excess glucose and fructose enters the liver, and fructose is converted to glucose. As you know, the liver stores glucose as glycogen, and glycogen is broken down to maintain the proper glucose level. 
Lipids 
Like carbohydrates, triglycerides (fats and oils) supply energy for cells, but fat is stored for the long term in the body. Fat deposits under the skin, called subcutaneous fat, insulate the body from cold temperatures; deeper fat deposits in the trunk protect organs against injury. 
Nutritionists generally recommend that unsaturated rather than saturated fats be included in the diet. Two unsaturated fatty acids (alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids) are essential dietary fatty acids. Delayed growth and skin problems can develop when the diet lacks these essential fatty acids, which can be supplied by eating fatty fish and by including plant oils, such as canola and soybean oils, in the diet. 
Animal foods such as butter, meat, whole milk, and cheeses contain saturated fats. Plant oils contain unsaturated fatty acids. Each type of oil has a particular percentage of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (see Fig. 3.13). 
Cholesterol, a lipid, can be synthesized by the body. Cells use cholesterol to make various compounds, including bile, steroid hormones, and vitamin D. Plant foods do not contain cholesterol; only animal foods such as cheese, egg yolks, liver, and certain shellfish (shrimp and lobster) are rich in cholesterol. 
Can Lipids Be Harmful?
Elevated blood cholesterol levels are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, the number one killer of Americans. A diet rich in cholesterol and saturated fats increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (see also Section 25.3). Statistical studies suggest that trans fats are even more harmful than saturated fats. Trans fats arise when unsaturated oils are hydrogenated to produce a solid fat found largely in processed foods. Trans fatty acids may reduce the function of plasma membrane receptors that clear cholesterol from the bloodstream. Trans fatty acids are found in commercially packaged foods such as cookies and crackers, in commercially fried foods such as french fries, in packaged snacks such as microwave popcorn, and in vegetable shortening and some margarines. Table 25.3 tells you how to reduce harmful lipids in the diet.
Proteins
Dietary proteins are digested to amino acids, which cells use to synthesize hundreds of cellular proteins. Of the 20 different amino acids, nine are essential amino acids that must be present in the diet. Children will not grow if their diets lack the essential amino acids. Eggs, milk products, meat, poultry, and most other foods derived from animals contain all nine essential amino acids and are “complete” or “high-quality” protein sources. 
Foods derived from plants generally do not have as much protein per serving as those derived from animals, and each type of plant food generally lacks one or more of the essential amino acids. Therefore, most plant foods are “incomplete” or “low-quality” protein sources. Vegetarians, however, do not have to rely on animal sources of protein. To meet their protein needs, total vegetarians (vegans) can eat grains, beans, and nuts in various combinations (Fig. 25.6). Also, tofu, soymilk, and other foods made from processed soybeans are complete protein sources. A balanced vegetarian diet is quite possible with a little planning.
Can Proteins Be Harmful?
According to nutritionists, protein should not supply the bulk of dietary calories. The average American eats about twice as much protein as he or she needs, and some people may be on a diet that encourages the intake of proteins instead of carbohydrates as an energy source. Also, body builders, weight lifters, and other athletes may include amino acid or protein supplements in the diet because they think these supplements will increase muscle mass. However, excess amino acids are not always converted into muscle tissue. When they are used as an energy source, the liver removes the nitrogen portion (deamination) and uses it to form urea, which is excreted in urine. The water needed for excretion of urea can cause dehydration when a person is exercising and losing water by sweating. High-protein diets can also increase calcium loss in the urine and encourage the formation of kidney stones. Furthermore, high-protein foods often contain a high amount of fat.
Minerals
The body needs about 20 elements called minerals for numerous physiological roles, including regulation of biochemical reactions, maintenance of fluid balance, and incorporation into certain structures and compounds. The body contains more than 5 grams of each major mineral and less than 5 grams of each trace mineral. Table 25.4 lists the minerals and gives their functions and food sources. It also tells the health effects of too little or too much intake. 
Occasionally, individuals (especially women) do not receive enough iron, calcium, magnesium, or zinc in their diets. Adult females need more iron in the diet than males (18 milligrams [mg] compared to 10 mg) if they are menstruating each month. Anemia, characterized by a run-down feeling due to insufficient red blood cells, results when the diet lacks sufficient iron. Many people take calcium supplements as directed by a physician to counteract osteoporosis, a degenerative bone disease that affects an estimated one-quarter of older men and one-half of older women in the United States. 
One mineral that people consume too much of is sodium. The recommended amount of sodium intake per day is 500 mg, although the average American takes in 4,000–4,700 mg each day. About one-third of the sodium we consume occurs naturally in foods; another one-third is added during commercial processing; and we add the last one-third either during home cooking or at the table in the form of table salt. Table 25.5 gives recommendations for reducing the amount of sodium in the diet.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds (other than carbohydrates, fats, and proteins including amino acids) that regulate various metabolic activities. Tables 25.6 and 25.7 list the major vitamins and some of their functions and food sources. 
Although many people think vitamins can enhance health dramatically, prevent aging, and cure diseases such as arthritis and cancer, there is no scientific evidence that vitamins are “wonder drugs.” However, vitamins C, E, and A are believed to defend the body against free radicals, and therefore they are termed antioxidants. These vitamins are especially abundant in fruits and vegetables, and so it is suggested that we eat about 41⁄2 cups of fruits and vegetables per day. To achieve this goal, we should consume salad greens, raw or cooked vegetables, dried fruit, and fruit juice in addition to traditional apples and oranges and other fresh foods.
Vitamin deficiencies can lead to disorders, and even death, in humans. Although many foods in the U.S. are now enriched, or fortified, with vitamins, some individuals, especially the elderly, young children, alcoholics, and low-income people, are still at risk for vitamin deficiencies, generally as a result of poor food choices. For example, skin cells normally contain a precursor cholesterol molecule that is converted to vitamin D after UV exposure. But a vitamin D deficiency leads to a condition called rickets, in which defective mineralization of the skeleton causes bowing of the legs (Fig. 25.7). Most milk today is fortified with vitamin D, which helps prevent the occurrence of rickets. Another example is vitamin C deficiency, the effects of which are illustrated in Figure 25.2.
Water
Water comprises about 60% of an adult’s body. Water participates in many chemical reactions; in addition, watery fluids lubricate joints, transport other nutrients, and help maintain body temperature. Beverages, soups, fruits, and vegetables are sources of water, and most solid foods also contain some water. The amount of total water (water from beverages and foods) that you need to consume depends on your physical activity level, diet, and environmental conditions. On average, men should consume about 125 ounces and women should consume about 90 ounces of total water each day. Thirst is a healthy person’s best guide for meeting water needs and avoiding dehydration. 
25.3		Nutrition and Health
Many serious disorders in Americans are linked to a diet that results in excess body fat. In the United States, the number of people who are overweight or obese has reached epidemic proportions. Nearly two-thirds of adult Americans have too much body fat. 
Excess body fat increases the risk of diabetes type 2, cardiovascular disease, and possibly certain cancers. These conditions are among the leading causes of disability and death in the United States. Therefore, it is important for us all to stay within the recommended weight for our height.
Are You Overweight? 
Medical researchers use the body mass index (BMI) to determine if a person is overweight or obese. On the whole, the height to which we grow is determined genetically, while our weight is influenced by other factors as well, particularly diet and lifestyle. BMI is the relationship between a person’s weight and height. Here’s how to calculate your BMI:
weight (pounds) 3 703.1
height2 (inches) 
Example: A woman whose height is 63 inches and weighs 133 pounds has a BMI of 23.56. 
	133 3 703.1		93512.3		23.56 (BMI)
	632 		3969
Healthy BMIs = 18.5 to 24.9 
Overweight BMIs = 25.0 to 29.9
Obese BMIs = 30.0 to 39.9
Morbidly obese BMIs = 40.0 or more 
Energy Intake Versus Energy Output
While genetics is a factor in being overweight, a person cannot become fat without taking in more food energy (calories) than are expended.
Energy IntakeScientists use a bomb calorimeter to measure a food’s caloric value (Fig. 25.8). A portion of food is placed inside the chamber and then ignited. As the food burns, it raises the temperature of the water that surrounds the chamber. Scientists measure the change in water temperature and calculate the number of calories in the food. The energy value of food is often reported in kilocalories (kcal). A kilocalorie is the amount of heat that raises the temperature of a liter of water by 1°C.
For practical purposes, you can estimate a food’s caloric value if you know how many grams of carbohydrate, fat, protein, and alcohol it contains. Each gram of carbohydrate or protein supplies 4 kcal, and each gram of fat supplies 9 kcal. Although alcohol is not a nutrient, it is considered a food, and each gram supplies 7 kcal. Therefore, if a serving of food contains 30 grams of carbohydrate, 9 grams of fat, and 5 grams of protein, it supplies 221 kcal.
carbohydrate	30 g 3 4 kcal 	120 kcal
fat	  9 g 3 9 kcal 	81 kcal
protein	  5 g 3 4 kcal 	  20 kcal
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 kcal
Energy OutputThe body expends energy primarily for (1) metabolic functions, (2) physical activity, and (3) digesting, absorbing, and processing nutrients from food. Scientists can access a person’s energy expenditure for a particular physical activity by measuring oxygen intake and carbon dioxide output during performance of the activity (Fig. 25.9). 
For practical purposes, here’s how to estimate your daily energy needs:
	1.	Kcal needed daily for metabolic functionsMultiply your weight in kilograms (weight in pounds divided by 2.2) times 1.0 if you are a man, and times 0.9 if you are a woman. Then multiply that number 
by 24.
		Example: Meghan, a woman who weighs 130 pounds (about 59 kg), would use the following steps to calculate her daily caloric use:
0.9 kcal 3 59 kg 3 24 hours  approximately 1,274 kcal/day
	2.	Kcal needed daily for physical activityChoose a multiplication factor from one of the follow categories:
		Sedentary (little or no physical activity)  .20 to .40
		Light (walk daily)  .55 to .65
		Moderate (daily vigorous exercise)  .70 to .75
		Heavy (perform physical labor/endurance training)  .80 to 1.20
		Multiply this factor times the kcal value you obtained in step 1.
		Example: Meghan performs light physical activity daily. She multiplies .55 3 1,274 kcal to determine her physical activity use, which is 701 kcal.
	3.	Kcal needed for digestion, absorption, and processing of nutrients
		Example: Meghan adds 1,274 kcal and 701 kcal to calculate her total energy needs so far. The answer is 1,975 kcal.
		Multiply this value by 0.1, and add it to the total kcal from steps 1 and 2 to get your total daily energy needs.
		Example: Meghan multiplies 1,975 kcal by 0.1 and adds that value (197.5) to 1,975 to obtain her total daily energy needs of 2,172 kcal. 
		Therefore, Meghan will maintain her weight of 130 pounds if she continues to consume about 2,170 kcal a day and to perform light physical activities.
Maintaining a Healthy Weight
To maintain weight at an appropriate level, the kcal intake (eating) should not exceed the daily kcal output (metabolism + physical activity + processing food). For many Americans, this ratio is out of sync; they take in more calories than they need. The extra energy is converted to fat stored in adipose tissue, and they become overweight. To lose weight, an overweight person needs to lower the kcal intake and increase the kcal output in the form of physical activity. Only then does the body metabolize its stored fat for energy needs, allowing the person to lose weight. Figure 25.10 illustrates how body weight changes in relation to kcal intake and kcal output. 
DietingFad weight-reduction diets—high-protein, low-carb, high-fiber, and even cabbage soup diets—come and go. During the first few weeks of following a fad diet, overweight people often lose weight rapidly, because they consume fewer calories than usual, and excess body fat is metabolized for energy needs. In most cases, however, dieters become bored with eating the same foods and avoiding their favorite foods, which may be high in fat and sugars. When most dieters “go off” their diets, they regain the weight that was lost, and they often feel frustrated and angry at themselves for failing to maintain the weight loss. 
There are no quick and easy solutions for losing weight. The typical fad diet is nutritionally unbalanced and difficult to follow over the long term. Weight loss and weight maintenance require making permanent lifestyle changes, such as increasing the level of physical activity and reducing portion sizes. Behavior modification allows an overweight person to lose weight safely, generally at a reasonable rate of about 1/2 to 2 pounds per week. Once body weight is under control, it needs to be maintained by continuing to eat sensibly.
Disorders Associated with Obesity
Diabetes type 2 and cardiovascular disease are often seen in people who are obese. 
Diabetes Type 2
As discussed in Chapter 27, diabetes comes in two forms, diabetes type 1 and diabetes type 2. When a person has diabetes type 1, the pancreas does not produce insulin, and the patient has to have daily insulin injections.
In contrast to diabetes type 1, children and more often adults with diabetes type 2 are usually obese and display impaired insulin production and insulin resistance. Normally, the presence of insulin causes the cells of the body to take up and metabolize glucose. In a person with insulin resistance, the body’s cells fail to take up glucose even when insulin is present. Therefore, the blood glucose value exceeds the normal level, and glucose appears in the urine. 
Diabetes type 2 is increasing rapidly in most industrialized countries of the world. Because diabetes type 2 is most often seen in people who are obese, dietary factors are generally believed to contribute to the development of diabetes type 2. Further, a healthy diet, increased physical activity, and weight loss have been seen to improve the ability of insulin to function properly in type 2 diabetics (Fig. 25.11). How might diet contribute to the occurrence of diabetes type 2? Simple sugars in foods, such as candy and ice cream, immediately enter the bloodstream, as do sugars from the digestion of starch within white bread and potatoes. When the blood glucose level rises rapidly, the pancreas produces an overload of insulin to bring the level under control. Chronically high insulin levels apparently lead to insulin resistance, increased fat deposition, and a high blood fatty acid level. Over the years, the body’s cells become insulin resistant, and thus diabetes type 2 can occur. In addition, high fatty acid levels can lead to increased risk of cardiovascular disease. 
It is well worth the effort to control diabetes type 2 because all diabetics, whether type 1 or type 2, are at risk for blindness, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease.
Cardiovascular Disease
In the United States, cardiovascular disease, which includes hypertension, heart attack, and stroke, is among the leading causes of death. Cardiovascular disease is often due to arteries blocked by plaque, which contains saturated fats and cholesterol. Cholesterol is carried in the blood by two types of lipoproteins: low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). LDL is thought of as “bad” because it carries cholesterol from the liver to the cells, while HDL is thought of as “good” because it carries cholesterol from the cells to the liver, which takes it up and converts it to bile salts. 
Saturated fats, including trans fats, tend to raise LDL cholesterol levels, while unsaturated fats lower LDL cholesterol levels. Beef, dairy foods, and coconut oil are rich sources of saturated fat. Foods containing partially hydrogenated oils (e.g., vegetable shortening and stick margarine) are sources of trans fats (Fig. 25.12). Unsaturated fatty acids in olive and canola oils, most nuts, and coldwater fish tend to lower LDL-cholesterol levels. Furthermore, coldwater fish (e.g., herring, sardines, tuna, and salmon) contain polyunsaturated fatty acids and especially omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Taking fish oil supplements to obtain omega-3s is not recommended without a physician’s approval, because too much of these fatty acids can interfere with normal blood clotting. 
The American Heart Association recommends limiting total cholesterol intake to 300 mg per day. Eggs are very nutritious, but yolks contain about 210 mg of cholesterol. Most healthy people can eat a couple of whole eggs each week without experiencing an increase in their blood cholesterol levels. Overall, dietary saturated fats and trans fats raise LDL-cholesterol levels more than dietary cholesterol. 
A physician can determine if blood lipid levels are normal. If a person’s cholesterol and triglyceride levels are elevated, modifying the fat content of your diet, losing excess body fat, and exercising regularly can reduce them. If lifestyle changes do not lower blood lipid levels enough to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, a physician may prescribe special medications. 
Eating Disorders
People with eating disorders are dissatisfied with their body image. Social, cultural, emotional, and biological factors all contribute to the development of an eating disorder. These serious conditions can lead to malnutrition, disability, and death. Regardless of the eating disorder, early recognition and treatment are crucial. Treatment usually includes psychological counseling and antidepressant medications. 
Anorexia nervosa is a severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat that results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy body weight (Fig. 25.13a). A self-imposed starvation diet is often accompanied by occasional binge eating that is followed by purging and extreme physical activity to avoid weight gain. Binges usually include large amounts of high-calorie foods, and purging episodes involve self-induced vomiting and laxative abuse. About 90% of people suffering from anorexia nervosa are young women; an estimated 1 in 200 teenage girls is affected.
A person with bulimia nervosa binge-eats, and then purges to avoid gaining weight (Fig. 25.13b). The binge-purge cyclic behavior can occur several times a day. People with bulimia nervosa can be difficult to identify because their body weights are often normal and they tend to conceal their binging and purging practices. Women are more likely than men to develop bulimia; an estimated 4% of young women suffer from this condition.
Other abnormal eating practices include binge-eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia. Many obese people suffer from binge-eating disorder, a condition characterized by episodes of overeating that are not followed by purging. Stress, anxiety, anger, and depression can trigger food binges. A person suffering from muscle dysmorphia thinks his or her body is underdeveloped. Body-building activities and a preoccupation with diet and body form accompany this condition. Each day, the person may spend hours in the gym working out on muscle-strengthening equipment. Unlike anorexia nervosa and bulimia, muscle dysmorphia affects more men than women. 
25.4		How to Plan Nutritious Meals
Planning nutritious meals and snacks involves making daily food choices based on a wide variety of information about recommended amounts of nutrients. A day’s food intake should provide the proper balance of nutrients—neither too much nor too little of each nutrient. Food guides can be helpful in planning your diet. Additionally, reading the Nutrition Facts panel on packaged foods can help you choose a healthier source of nutrients.
The Food Pyramid  
In 2005, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) presented an updated food guide pyramid (Fig. 25.14). The previous food guide pyramid had been criticized for not emphasizing the need for whole-grain breads and cereals, low-fat dairy products, low-sugar fruits and vegetables, and unsaturated fats such as olive and canola oil in the diet. It also did not place an emphasis on exercise as a means to control weight gain.
The new pyramid, like the old one, groups foods with similar nutritional content and ranks food groups according to dietary emphasis so the diet will be balanced. The new pyramid emphasizes foods that should be eaten often and omits foods that should not be eaten on a regular basis. Additionally, the USDA provides recommendations concerning the minimum quantity of foods in each group that should be eaten daily. The sample menu in Table 25.8 shows how the food guide pyramid can be used to plan a day’s meals and snacks that supply about 2,200 kcal.  
Making Sense of Nutrition Labels
A Nutrition Facts panel, such as the one shown in Figure 25.15 provides specific dietary information about the product and general information about the nutrients the product contains. 
Serving SizeThe serving size is based on the typical serving size for the product and not necessarily what the food guide pyramid would consider a serving size. If you are comparing Calorie (kcal)1 and other data about products of the same type, you definitely want to be sure the serving size is the same for each product. 
CaloriesThe total number of kcal is based on the serving size. Obviously, if you eat twice the serving size, you have taken in twice the number of calories. 
The bottom of the panel lists the Calories (kcal) per gram (g) of fat, carbohydrate, and protein. You can use this information to calculate the calories per serving for each type of nutrient. The total for all nutrients should agree with the figure given for Calories at the top of the panel, namely 260. 
% Daily ValueThe % daily value (the % of the total amount needed in a 2,000 kcal diet) is calculated by comparing the specific information about this product with the information given at the bottom of the panel. For example, the product in Figure 25.15 has a fat content of 13 g, and the total daily recommended amount is less than 65 g, so 13/65 = 20%. These % daily values are not applicable for people who require more or less than 2,000 Calories (kcal) per day. 
A % daily value for protein is generally not given because determining % daily value would require expensive testing of the protein quality of the product by the manufacturer. Also, notice there is a % daily value for carbohydrates but not sugars because there is no daily value for sugar.
How to Use the PanelIf the serving sizes are the same, you can use Nutrition Facts panels to compare two products of the same type. For example, if you wanted to reduce your caloric intake and increase your fiber and vitamin C intakes, comparing the panels from two different food products would allow you to see which one is lowest in calories and highest in fiber and vitamin C.  
Dietary Supplements 
Dietary supplements are nutrients and plant products (such as herbal teas) that are used to enhance health. The U.S. government does not require dietary supplements to undergo the same safety and effectiveness testing that new prescription drugs must complete before they are approved. Therefore, many herbal products have not been tested scientifically to determine their benefits. Although people often think herbal products are safe because they are “natural,” many plants, including lobelia, comfrey, and kava kava, can be poisonous. 
Dietary supplements that contain nutrients can also cause harm. Most fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body and can accumulate to toxic levels, particularly vitamins A and D. Although excesses of water-soluble vitamins can be excreted, cases involving toxic amounts of vitamins B6, thiamin, and vitamin C have been reported. Minerals can be harmful, even deadly, when ingested in amounts that exceed the body’s needs. 
Healthy people can take a daily supplement that contains recommended amounts of vitamins and minerals. Some people have metabolic diseases or physical conditions that interfere with their ability to absorb or metabolize certain nutrients. These individuals may need to add certain nutrient supplements to their diet. However, people should not take high doses of dietary supplements without checking with their physicians. 
The Bottom Line
While food guide pyramids differ in various ways, most nutritionists can agree that a healthy diet does the following:
	•	Has a moderate total fat intake and is low in saturated fat, trans fats, and cholesterol. (See Table 25.3 for help in achieving this goal.)
	•	Is rich in whole-grain products, vegetables, and legumes (e.g., beans and peas) as sources of complex carbohydrates and fiber.
	•	Is low in refined carbohydrates, such as starches and sugars. (See Table 25.2 for help in achieving this goal.)
	•	Is low in salt and sodium intake. (See Table 25.5 for help in achieving this goal.)
	•	Contains only adequate amounts of protein, largely from poultry, fish, and plant origins.
	•	Includes only moderate amounts of alcohol.
	•	Contains adequate amounts of minerals and vitamins, but avoids questionable food additives and supplements.
The Chapter in Review
Summary
25.1		Nutrition
Nutrients perform varied physiological functions in the body. A healthy diet can lead to a longer and more active life.
Introducing the Nutrients
Nearly every food is a mixture of nutrients. Balanced diets supply nutrients in proportions necessary for health. Essential nutrients must be supplied by the diet, or else deficiency disorders result. Macronutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) supply energy. Micro-nutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water do not supply energy.
25.2		The Classes of Nutrients 
The six classes of nutrients are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and water. Their functions and food sources follow.
Carbohydrates (Macronutrient) 
	•	Carbohydrates in the form of sugars and starch provide energy for cells. Glucose is a simple carbohydrate the body uses directly for energy. 
	•	Sources of carbohydrates are fruits, vegetables, cereals, and other grains. 
	•	Fiber includes nondigestible carbohydrates from plants. Fiber in the diet can prevent constipation and may protect against cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. Refined carbohydrates from which fiber, vitamins, and minerals have been removed are a poor dietary choice.
	•	Nutritionists debate whether dietary fat or refined carbohydrates are responsible for the prevalence of obesity today. 
Lipids (Macronutrient) 
	•	Triglycerides (fats and oils) supply energy and are stored for insulation and protection of organs. Alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids are essential fatty acids. 
	•	Cholesterol is used to make bile, steroid hormones, and vitamin D. The only food sources of cholesterol are foods derived from animals. Elevated blood cholesterol levels can lead to cardiovascular disease.
	•	Sources of lipids include oils, fats, whole-milk dairy products, meat, fish, poultry, and nuts.
	•	High intake of saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol is harmful to health.
Proteins (Macronutrient) 
	•	The body uses the 20 different amino acids to synthesize hundreds of proteins. Nine amino acids are essential to the diet. Most animal foods are complete sources of protein because they contain all nine essential amino acids. 
	•	Sources of proteins include meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts, soybeans, and cheese.
	•	Healthy vegetarian diets rely on various sources of plant proteins.
	•	Consumption of excess proteins can be harmful because the excretion of excess urea taxes the kidneys and can lead to kidney stones. 
Minerals (Micronutrient) 
	•	Minerals regulate metabolism and are incorporated into structures and compounds. 
	•	About 20 minerals, obtained from most foods, are needed by the body.
	•	Lack of the mineral calcium can lead to osteoporosis. 
	•	Most people consume too much sodium.
Vitamins (Micronutrient) 
	•	Vitamins, obtained from most foods, regulate metabolism and physiological development. Vitamins C, E, and A also serve as antioxidants. 
	•	Lack of any of the vitamins can lead to certain disorders. 
Water  
	•	Water participates in chemical reactions, lubricates joints, transports other nutrients, and helps maintain body temperature. 
25.3		Nutrition and Health
Excess body fat increases the risk of diabetes type 2, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers. 
Body Mass Index 
Medical researchers use the body mass index (BMI) to determine if a person has a healthy weight, is overweight, or is obese.
Energy Intake Versus Energy Output
	•	Energy intake: The number of daily calories (kcal) consumed is based on grams of carbohydrate, fat, and protein in the foods eaten. 
	•	Energy output: The number of daily calories (kcal) used is based on the amounts needed for metabolic functions, physical activity, and digesting, absorbing, and processing nutrients.
Maintaining a Healthy Weight 
	•	To maintain a healthy weight, kcal intake should not exceed kcal output. To lose weight, decrease caloric intake and increase physical activity.
	•	Fad diets, in general, are nutritionally unbalanced and difficult to follow over the long term.
Disorders Associated with Obesity 
	•	Diabetes type 2: A healthy diet, increased physical activity, and weight loss improve insulin function in type 2 diabetics.
	•	Cardiovascular disease: Saturated fats and trans fats are associated with high blood LDL-cholesterol levels. To reduce risk of cardiovascular disease, cholesterol intake should be limited, and the diet should include sources of unsaturated, polyunsaturated, and omega-3 fatty acids to reduce cholesterol levels.
Eating Disorders 
People suffering from eating disorders are dissatisfied with their body image. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are serious psychological disturbances that can lead to malnutrition and death.
25.4		How to Plan Nutritious Meals
Planning nutritious meals and snacks involves making healthy and informed food choices.
The Food Pyramid 
Food guide pyramids group foods according to similar nutrient content. Such guides can be helpful when planning nutritious meals and snacks. The new USDA food guide pyramid also emphasizes the need for exercise to prevent weight gain.
Making Sense of Nutrition Labels 
The information in the Nutrition Facts panel on packaged foods can be useful when comparing foods for nutrient content, especially serving size, total calories, and % daily value. 
Dietary Supplements
Dietary supplements are nutrients and plant products that are taken to enhance health. A multiple vitamin and mineral supplement that provides recommended amounts of nutrients can be taken daily, but herbal and nutritional supplements can be harmful if misused. 
Thinking Scientifically
One reason obesity is such a pervasive problem in the United States is that serving sizes have increased dramatically in the past two decades. For example, 20 years ago, a typical soda was 6.5 ounces, while today a 20-ounce soda is considered average. A serving of french fries was 2.6 ounces in the past, but is at least 6 ounces today. Bagels have doubled in size. Complete the following table to determine the caloric values of today’s servings, and then compare them. 
Testing Yourself
Choose the best answer for each question.
	1.	Vitamins are considered 
	a. micronutrients because they are small in size.
	b. micronutrients because they are needed in small quantities.
	c. macronutrients because they are large in size.
	d. macronutrients because they are needed in large quantities.
For questions 2–9, choose the class of nutrient from the key that matches the description. Each answer may be used more than once.
Key:
	a. carbohydrates
	b. lipids
	c. proteins
	d. minerals
	e. vitamins
	f. water
	2.	Preferred source of direct energy for cells.
	3.	Comprises the majority of body mass. 
	4.	Not present in most animal foods. 
	5.	Include the essential fatty acids alpha-linolenic and linoleic. 
	6.	Include antioxidants.
	7.	Generally found in higher levels in animal than in plant sources. 
	8.	An example is cholesterol. 
	9.	Includes calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. 
	10.	The refining of whole-grain foods removes
	a. fiber.
	b. vitamins.
	c. minerals.
	d. More than one of these are correct.
	e. All of these are correct.
	11.	What is the BMI (body mass index) of a person who is five feet ten inches tall and weighs 160 pounds?
	a. 31
	b. 27
	c. 23
	d. 18
	e. 12
	12.	A serving of graham crackers contains 24 grams of carbohydrate, 3 grams of fat, and 2 grams of protein. How many calories are in a serving?
	a. 131
	b. 236
	c. 116
	d. 261
	e. 141
	13.	With reference to the food pyramid, fill in each component and the recommended daily dietary amount based on a 2,000 Calorie (kcal) diet.
	14.	You are comparing two breakfast cereals and one has fewer calories than the other per serving. What should you check before deciding that one will lead to weight loss rather than the other?
	a. the percentage of vitamins provided by each
	b. the grams of protein provided by each
	c. the grams of sugar provided by each
	d. the suggested serving size
	e. the size of the box
	15.	A percent daily value for sugar is not included in a nutrition label because 
	a.	sugar is not a nutrient.
	b.	it is too difficult to determine the caloric value of sugar.
	c.	
there is a daily value given for carbohydrates but not for sugars.
	d.	sugar quality varies from product to product.
	16.	The amino acids that must be consumed in the diet are called essential. Nonessential amino acids
	a. can be produced by the body.
	b. are only needed occasionally.
	c. are stored in the body until needed.
	d. can be taken in by supplements.
	17.	Bulimia nervosa is not characterized by 
	a. a restrictive diet, but often includes excessive exercise.
	b. binge eating followed by purging.
	c. an obsession about body shape and weight.
	d. a distorted body image so that the person feels fat even when emaciated.
	18.	Which of these is a true statement?
	a.	Technically speaking, junk foods have nutritional value.
	b.	Water is not a nutrient because it contains no kcal.
	c.	Even though fiber can be digested, it is not a nutrient.
	d.	
Cholesterol should be avoided because it plays no role in the body.
	e.	
A vegetarian diet is sure not to provide all the essential amino acids.
Go to www.mhhe.com/maderessentials for more quiz questions.
Bioethical Issue
Some people believe that food and drink manufacturers are at least partly to blame for the obesity epidemic in the United States. They suggest that advertising by these companies shows portion sizes that encourage excess consumption, that children are led to believe they must purchase certain products, such as soft drinks, in order to be socially accepted, and that some products that are not substitutes for meals are presented as such. Do you think the government should regulate or ban such advertising? If so, how extensive should the regulations be? If not, how might parents counter the effects of such advertising?
Understanding the Terms
anorexia nervosa448
antioxidant442
binge-eating disorder448
body mass index (BMI)444
bulimia nervosa448
carbohydrate438
cholesterol440
deficiency disorder436
diet437
dietary supplement450
essential nutrient437
fat439
fiber438
macronutrient437
micronutrient437
mineral441
muscle dysmorphia448
nutrient436
nutrition436
obesity439
protein440
triglyceride439
vitamin442
Match the terms to these definitions:
a.	_______________	Component of food that provides a physio-logical function. 
b.	_______________	Nondigestible carbohydrate derived from plants.
c.	_______________	Fats and oils.
d.	_______________	Lipid necessary for the synthesis of bile, steroid hormones, and vitamin D.
e.	_______________	Organic compounds, found in low levels in the body, that regulate metabolic activities. 
f.	_______________	Compounds that defend the body against free radicals. 
g.	_______________	Measure of height relative to weight to determine whether or not a person is overweight 
h.	_______________	Psychological disorder in which a person refuses to eat because of an irrational fear of becoming fat. 
i.	_______________	Eating disorder characterized by binge eating and then purging. 
j.	_______________	Disorder in which the person performs excessive body building exercises to correct what is perceived as an underdeveloped body. 

Trans fats are the most harmful kind of fat in the diet.
Some vitamins taken in extreme excess can cause health problems.
Extremely high-protein diets may be dangerous to health.
Figure 25.2Vitamin C deficiency. 
a. Pinpoint hemorrhages (tiny bruises that appear as red spots in the skin) are an early indication of vitamin C deficiency. b. Bleeding gums are another early sign of vitamin C deficiency. 
Figure 25.3Nutrient composition of a slice of bread. 
Most foods are mixtures of nutrients.
Figure 25.1A healthy diet.
Making the right food choices leads to better health.
Check Your Progress
	1.	Which classes of nutrients do not provide energy?
	2.	Explain why the expression “junk food” may be inappropriate.
	3.	Give an example of an empty-calorie food and explain why it fits this description.
Answers:1. Vitamins, minerals, and water do not provide energy.2. So-called “junk foods” do contain nutrients.3. Answers should include foods that are rich sources of simple sugars and/or fat, such as sugar-sweetened soft drinks, pastries, and cookies. These are empty-calorie foods because they provide little else besides calories. 
Figure 25.5Fiber-rich foods. 
Plants provide a good source of carbohydrates. They also provide fiber when they are not processed (refined).
Figure 25.4 Major food sources.
Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are represented.
Figure 25.6Beans as food. 
Beans are a good source of protein, but they don’t supply all nine of the essential amino acids. To ensure a complete source of protein in the diet, they should be eaten in combination with a grain such as rice. 
Check Your Progress
	1.	List three foods that are good sources of fiber. 
	2.	What lipid sources are potentially harmful to the body?
	3.	Identify a food that is a complete protein source.
Answers:1. Answers will vary, but should include plant foods only.2. Foods rich in saturated fat, cholesterol, and trans fats are potentially harmful.
3. Answers will vary, but should be animal foods or foods made from processed soybeans.
Figure 25.7Rickets.
Bowing of bones (rickets) due to vitamin D deficiency. 
Figure 25.9Measuring energy needed for a physical activity. 
a. A sedentary job requires much less energy than (b) a physical job. c. Scientists measure oxygen intake and carbon dioxide output to determine the kcal required for a particular physical activity. 
Figure 25.8Measuring the energy content of food. 
Scientists use a bomb calorimeter to determine the amount of calories supplied by a particular food. 
Check Your Progress
	1.	What two minerals are needed for strong bones and teeth?
	2.	
List the vitamins that are antioxidants. 
	3.	Name the nutrient in your body that is present in the largest quantity.
Answers:1. Calcium and phosphorus are needed for strong bones and teeth.2. Vitamins C, E, and A (beta-carotene) are antioxidants.3. Water is present in the largest quantity.
Check Your Progress
	1.	Ted’s BMI is 32.5. According to this information, in what range is his weight?
	2.	
Name the device used to determine the number of calories in a food.
	3.	
Daily caloric needs are based on what three types of needs? 
Answers:1. Ted is obese.2. A bomb calorimeter counts calories in food.
3. Daily caloric needs are based on metabolic functions, physical activity, and digestion, absorption, and processing of food. 
Figure 25.11Exercising for good health. 
Regular exercise helps prevent and control diabetes type 2.
Figure 25.12French fries.
Most people enjoy eating french fries, but fast-food fries are apt to contain saturated fats and trans fats.
Figure 25.10How body weight changes. 
These illustrations show the relationships between food intake, energy use, and weight change.
Figure 25.14The 2005 USDA food guide pyramid.
This food guide pyramid can be helpful when planning nutritious meals and snacks.
Source: Data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Figure 25.13Eating disorders. 
a. People with anorexia nervosa have a mistaken body image and think they are fat even though they are thin. b. Those with bulimia nervosa overeat and then purge their bodies of the food they have eaten. 
Check Your Progress
	1.	What causes a person to gain weight?
	2.	Why are fad diets of limited value? 
	3.	Salmon, tuna, and other coldwater fish are good sources of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids. What are these fatty acids called?
	4.	Sally diets because she thinks she is fat, even though her friends tell her she is already too thin. Sally is in danger of what eating disorder? 
Answers:1. Taking in more calories than required for daily energy needs causes weight gain.2. Typical fad diets are prone to be nutritionally unbalanced and hard to follow for the long term.3. Omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids.4. Sally is in danger of anorexia nervosa.
Check Your Progress
	1.	What should Jim consult to compare the caloric value and vitamin A content of canned peaches and canned pears? 
	2.	For the product in Figure 25.15, how many calories are in a serving? How many grams of total fat are in a serving? 
	3.	Is it always safe to take high doses of nutritional supplements? 
Answers:1. Jim should read the Nutrition Facts panels on the labels.2. Total calories = 260; total fat = 13 grams3. No, vitamins and minerals especially can be toxic in large doses.
Figure 25.15Nutrition Facts panel. 
The Nutrition Facts panel provides information about the amounts of certain nutrients and other substances in a serving of food.

	Soda Then
4.5 oz.	Soda Now
20 oz.	Calorie 
Increase	
Fat (g)	0	_______		
Carbohydrate (g)	21	_______		
Protein (g)	0	_______		
Total calories	_____	_______	_______	
	Fries Then
2.6 oz.	Fries Now
6 oz.	Calorie 
Increase	
Fat (g)	11	_______		
Carbohydrate (g)	28	_______		
Protein (g)	3	_______		
Total calories	_____	_______	_______	
	Bagels Then
80 oz.	Bagels Now
200 oz.	Calorie 
Increase	
Fat (g)	0.5	_______		
Carbohydrate (g)	40	_______		
Protein (g)	6	_______		
Total calories	_____	_______	_______	

Table 25.1	Summarizing the Classes of Nutrients	

Class of Nutrient	Major Food Sources	Primary Physiological Roles	Macronutrient or Micronutrient	
Carbohydrates	Sugars and starches in fruits, vegetables, cereals and other grains	Glucose is metabolized for energy; fiber adds to fecal bulk, preventing constipation.	Macronutrient	
Lipids	Oil, margarine, salad dressings, meat, fish, poultry, nuts, fried foods, dairy products made with whole milk	Triglycerides are metabolized for energy and stored for insulation and protection of organs. Cholesterol is used to make certain hormones, bile, and vitamin D.	Macronutrient	
Proteins	Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts, dried beans and peas, soybeans, cereal products, milk, cheese, yogurt	Proteins are needed for building, repairing, and maintaining tissues; synthesizing enzymes and certain hormones; and producing antibodies.	Macronutrient	
Minerals	Widespread in vegetables and other foods	Regulation of energy metabolism, maintenance of fluid balance, and production of certain structures, enzymes, and hormones	Micronutrient	
Vitamins	Widespread in foods; plant foods are good sources of antioxidants.	Regulation of metabolism and physiological development	Micronutrient	
Water	Widespread in foods, beverages	Participant in many chemical reactions; needed for maintenance of body fluids, temperature regulation, joint lubrication, and transportation of material in cells and the body 	(Not applicable)	

Table 25.2	Reducing Dietary Sugars	

To reduce dietary sugar:	
1.	Eat fewer sweets, such as candy, soft drinks, ice cream, and pastry.	
2.	Eat fresh fruits or fruits canned without heavy syrup.	
3.	Use less sugar—white, brown, or raw—and less honey and syrups.	
4.	Avoid sweetened breakfast cereals.	
5.	Eat less jelly, jam, and preserves.	
6.	Drink pure fruit juices, not imitations.	
7.	When cooking, use spices such as cinnamon, instead of sugar, to flavor foods.	
8.	Do not put sugar in tea or coffee.	
9.	Avoid potatoes and processed foods made from refined carbo-hydrates, such as white bread, rice, and pasta. These foods are immediately broken down to sugar during digestion.	

Table 25.3	Reducing Certain Lipids	

To reduce dietary saturated fat:	
1.	Choose poultry, fish, or dry beans and peas as a protein source.	
2.	Remove skin from poultry and trim fat from red meats before cooking, and place on a rack so that fat drains off.	
3.	Broil, boil, or bake rather than frying.	
4.	Limit your intake of butter, cream, trans fats, shortening, and tropical oils (coconut and palm oils).*	
5.	Use herbs and spices to season vegetables instead of butter, margarine, or sauces. Use lemon juice instead of salad dressing.	
6.	Drink skim milk instead of whole milk, and use skim milk in cooking and baking.	
To reduce dietary cholesterol:	
1.	Eat white fish and poultry in preference to cheese, egg yolks, liver, and certain shellfish (shrimp and lobster). 	
2.	Substitute egg whites for egg yolks in both cooking and eating.	
3.	Include soluble fiber in the diet. Oat bran, oatmeal, beans, corn, and fruits, such as apples, citrus fruits, and cranberries are high in soluble fiber.	

* Although coconut and palm oils are from plant sources, they are mostly saturated fats.

Table 25.4	Minerals	

Mineral	Functions	Food Sources	Conditions Caused By:	
			Too Little	Too Much	
Major Minerals 	
Calcium (Ca2)	Strong bones and teeth, nerve conduction, muscle contraction	Dairy products, leafy green vegetables	Stunted growth in children, low bone density in adults	Kidney stones; interferes with iron and zinc absorption	
Phosphorus (PO43)	Bone and soft tissue growth; part of phospholipids, ATP, and nucleic acids	Meat, dairy products, sunflower seeds, food additives	Weakness, confusion, pain in bones and joints	Low blood and bone calcium levels	
Potassium (K)	Nerve conduction, muscle contraction	Many fruits and vegetables, bran	Paralysis, irregular heartbeat, eventual death	Vomiting, heart attack, death	
Sodium (Na)	Nerve conduction, pH and water balance	Table salt	Lethargy, muscle cramps, loss of appetite	High blood pressure, calcium loss	
Chloride (Cl)	Water balance	Table salt	Not likely	Vomiting, dehydration	
Magnesium (Mg2)	Part of various enzymes for nerve and muscle contraction, protein synthesis	Whole grains, leafy green vegetables	Muscle spasm, irregular heartbeat, convulsions, confusion, personality changes	Diarrhea	
Trace Minerals	
Zinc (Zn2)	Protein synthesis, wound healing, fetal development and growth, immune function	Meats, legumes, whole grains	Delayed wound healing, night blindness, diarrhea, mental lethargy	Anemia, diarrhea, vomiting, renal failure, abnormal cholesterol levels	
Iron (Fe2)	Hemoglobin synthesis	Whole grains, meats, prune juice	Anemia, physical and mental sluggishness	Iron toxicity disease, organ failure, eventual death	
Copper (Cu2)	Hemoglobin synthesis	Meat, nuts, legumes	Anemia, stunted growth in children	Damage to internal organs if not excreted	
Iodine (I)	Thyroid hormone synthesis	Iodized table salt, seafood	Thyroid deficiency	Depressed thyroid function, anxiety	
Selenium (SeO42)	Part of antioxidant enzyme	Seafood, meats, eggs	Vascular collapse, possible cancer development	Hair and fingernail loss, discolored skin	

Table 25.5	Reducing Dietary Sodium	

To reduce dietary sodium:	
1.	Use spices instead of salt to flavor foods.	
2.	Add little or no salt to foods at the table, and add only small amounts of salt when you cook.	
3.	Eat unsalted crackers, pretzels, potato chips, nuts, and popcorn.	
4.	Avoid hot dogs, ham, bacon, luncheon meats, smoked salmon, sardines, and anchovies.	
5.	Avoid processed cheese and canned or dehydrated soups.	
6.	Avoid brine-soaked foods, such as pickles or olives.	
7.	Read labels to avoid high-salt products.	

Table 25.6	Water-Soluble Vitamins	

Vitamin	Functions	Food Sources	Conditions Caused By:	
			Too Little	Too Much	
Vitamin C	Antioxidant; needed for forming collagen; helps maintain capillaries, bones, and teeth	Citrus fruits, leafy green vegetables, tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage	Scurvy, delayed wound healing, infections	Gout, kidney stones, diarrhea, decreased copper	
Thiamine (vitamin B1)	Part of coenzyme needed for cellular respiration; also promotes activity of the nervous system	Whole-grain cereals, dried beans and peas, sunflower seeds, nuts	Beriberi, muscular weakness, enlarged heart	Can interfere with absorption of other vitamins	
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)	Part of coenzymes, such as FAD; aids cellular respiration, including oxidation of protein and fat	Nuts, dairy products, whole-grain cereals, poultry, leafy green vegetables	Dermatitis, blurred vision, growth failure	Unknown	
Niacin (nicotinic acid)	Part of coenzymes NAD and NADP; needed for cellular respiration, including oxidation of protein and fat	Peanuts, poultry, whole-grain cereals, leafy green vegetables, beans	Pellagra, diarrhea, mental disorders 	High blood sugar and uric acid, vasodilation, etc.	
Folacin (folic acid)	Coenzyme needed for production of hemoglobin and formation of DNA	Dark leafy green vegetables, nuts, beans, whole-grain cereals	Megaloblastic anemia, spina bifida	May mask B12 deficiency	
Vitamin B6 	Coenzyme needed for synthesis of hormones and hemoglobin; CNS control	Whole-grain cereals, bananas, beans, poultry, nuts, leafy green vegetables	Rarely, convulsions, vomiting, seborrhea, muscular weakness	Insomnia, neuropathy	
Pantothenic acid	Part of coenzyme A needed for oxidation of carbohydrates and fats; aids in the formation of hormones and certain neurotransmitters	Nuts, beans, dark green vegetables, poultry, fruits, milk	Rarely, loss of appetite, mental depression, numbness	Unknown	
Vitamin B12	Complex, cobalt-containing compound; part of the coenzyme needed for synthesis of nucleic acids and myelin	Dairy products, fish, poultry, eggs, fortified cereals	Pernicious anemia	Unknown	
Biotin	Coenzyme needed for metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids	Generally in foods, especially eggs	Skin rash, nausea, fatigue	Unknown	

Table 25.7	Fat-Soluble Vitamins	

Vitamin	Functions	Food Sources	Conditions Caused By:	
			Too Little	Too Much	
Vitamin D	A group of steroids needed for development and maintenance of bones and teeth	Milk fortified with vitamin D, fish liver oil; also made in the skin when exposed to sunlight	Rickets, bone decalcification and weakening	Calcification of soft tissues, diarrhea, possible renal damage	
Vitamin E	Antioxidant that prevents oxidation of vitamin A and polyunsaturated fatty acids	Leafy green vegetables, fruits, vegetable oils, nuts, whole-grain breads and cereals	Unknown	Diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fatigue, muscle weakness	
Vitamin K	Needed for synthesis of substances active in clotting of blood	Leafy green vegetables, cabbage, cauliflower	Easy bruising and bleeding	Can interfere with anticoagulant medication	

Table 25.8	Preparing Meals and Snacks using the Food Guide Pyramid	

Breakfast	Snack	Lunch	Snack	Dinner	Dessert	
1/2 cup oat flakes cereal	Whole-wheat muffin	Toasted American cheese sandwich (whole-grain bread)	Apple	3 oz. hamburger patty	1/2 cup frozen vanilla yogurt topped with sliced strawberries	
8 oz. nonfat milk	2 Tbsp peanut butter mixed with 1 tsp sunflower seeds	1 cup vegetable salad	4 graham crackers	Whole-wheat bun		
1/2 cup blueberries 	8 oz. nonfat milk	1 Tbsp olive oil and vinegar salad dressing	1/2 cup baked beans			
1 slice whole-grain toast		4 oz. tomato juice		1 cup steamed broccoli spears		
1 tsp soft margarine				1 tsp soft margarine		
4 oz. orange juice						

1 Nutritionists use the term Calorie, while scientists prefer kcal.