DNA Biology 
and Technology
Chapter
11
Outline
	11.1	DNA and RNA Structure 
and Function
	•	DNA is a double helix; each of the two strands is a polymer. The monomers are four different nucleotides.160–-61
	•	DNA molecules vary greatly because the paired bases can be in any order.162
	•	DNA is able to replicate, and in this way genetic information is passed from one cell generation to the next.164
	•	RNA occurs in three forms, each with a specific function.165
	11.2	Gene Expression 
	•	Each gene specifies the amino acid sequence of one polypeptide of a protein.166
	•	The expression of genes leading to a protein product involves two steps, called transcription and translation.166
	•	Mutations can be due to errors in replication, environmental mutagens, or transposons.172
	11.3	DNA Technology
	•	Gene cloning can be accomplished by using recombinant DNA technology or the polymerase chain reaction.173
	•	Upon enzymatic fragmentation of DNA, every individual has a unique set of DNA fragments called a DNA fingerprint.174
	•	Genetic engineering utilizing recombinant DNA technology has led to the insertion of foreign genes in bacteria, plants, and animals for various purposes.175
One recent advance in DNA technology is the production of transgenic animals—animals that contain genes from another species. For example, researchers have created a variety of miniature pigs for the purpose of providing organs for human transplants. A unique feature of these pigs is a yellow snout and hooves due to a gene introduced from jellyfish! This makes the pigs easy to identify. 
An alternative source of transplant organs is needed because human organs are in limited supply, and many people die each year waiting for transplants. If organs from a normal pig are transplanted into a human, two major problems occur: The organs from pigs are too large for humans and also the organs are quickly rejected. However, transplants from miniature genetically altered pigs avoid both of these complications. First, the miniature size of the pigs makes their organs more appropriate for humans. Second, rejection is avoided because the genes coding for plasma membrane proteins that normally trigger rejection have been “knocked out”—that is, they are not expressed. Pig organs may eventually become a life-saving alternative for people who are unable to acquire human organ transplants.
In this chapter, you will learn about the structure and function of DNA. This knowledge will allow you to appreciate the incredible advances in the field of DNA technology.
11.1		DNA and RNA Structure 
and Function
Mendel knew nothing about DNA. It took many years for investigators to come to the conclusion that Mendel’s factors, now called genes, are on the chromosomes. Then, researchers wanted to show the genes consisted of DNA and not proteins. One experiment involved the use of a virus that attacks bacteria such as E. coli (Fig. 11.1). A virus is composed of an outer capsid made of protein and an inner core of DNA. The use of radioactive tracers showed that DNA and not protein enters bacteria and directs the formation of new viruses. By the early 1950s, investigators not only knew that genes are composed of DNA, they knew that mutated genes result in errors of metabolism. Therefore, DNA in some way must control the functioning of proteins in the cell.
Even though DNA took its name—deoxyribonucleic acid—from the chemical components of its nucleotides, its detailed structure was still to be determined. Finding the structure of DNA was the first step toward understanding how DNA is able to do the following: 
	•	Be variable in order to account for species differences. 
	•	Replicate so that every cell gets a copy during cell division. 
	•	Store information needed to control the cell. 
	•	Undergo mutations, accounting for evolution of new species.
Structure of DNA
Once researchers knew that the genes are composed of DNA, they were racing against time and each other to determine the structure of DNA. They believed that whoever discovered it first would get a Nobel Prize. How James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA (and got the Nobel Prize) resembles a mystery, in which each clue was added to the total picture until the breathtaking design of DNA—a double helix—was finally revealed. To achieve this success, Watson and Crick particularly relied on studies done by Erwin Chargaff and Rosalind Franklin.
Chargaff’s Rules
Before Erwin Chargaff began his work, it was known that DNA contains four different types of nucleotides based on their nitrogen-containing bases (Fig. 11.2). The bases adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines with a double ring, and the bases thymine (T) and cytosine (C) are pyrimidines with a single ring. With the development of new chemical techniques in the 1940s, Chargaff decided to analyze in detail the base content of DNA.
In contrast to accepted beliefs, Chargaff found that each species has its own percentages of each type of nucleotide. For example, in a human cell, 31% of bases are adenine; 31% are thymine; 19% are guanine; and 19% are cytosine. In all the species Chargaff studied, the amount of A always equaled the amount of T, and the amount of G always equaled the amount of C. These relationships are called Chargaff’s rules:
	1.	The amount of A, T, G, and C in DNA varies from species to species.
	2.	In each species, the amount of A  T and the amount of G  C. 
Chargaff’s data suggest that DNA has a means to be stable in that A can only pair with T and G can only pair with C. His data also show that DNA can be variable as required for the genetic material. The paired bases may occur in any order, and the amount of variability in their sequences is overwhelming. For example, suppose a chromosome contains 140 million base pairs. Since any of the four possible nucleotide pairs can be present at each pair location, the total number of possible nucleotide pair sequences is 4140 3 106 or 4140,000,000. 
Franklin’s X-Ray Diffraction Data
Rosalind Franklin was a researcher at King’s College in London in the early 1950s (Fig. 11.3a). She was studying the structure of DNA using X-ray crystallography. When a crystal (a solid substance whose atoms are arranged in a definite manner) is X-rayed, the X-ray beam is diffracted (deflected), and the pattern that results shows how the atoms are arranged in the crystal. 
First Franklin made a concentrated, viscous solution of DNA and then saw that it could be separated into fibers. Under the right conditions, the fibers were enough like a crystal that when X-rayed, a diffraction pattern resulted. The X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA shows that DNA is a double helix. The helical shape is indicated by the crossed (X) pattern in the center of the photograph in Figure 11.3b. The dark portions at the top and bottom of the photograph indicate that some portion of the helix is repeated over and over.
The Watson and Crick Model
In 1951, James Watson, a newly graduated biology major, began an internship at the University of Cambridge, England. There he met Francis Crick, a British physicist, who was interested in molecular structures. Together, they set out to determine the structure of DNA and to build a model that would explain how DNA varies from species to species, replicates, stores information, and undergoes mutations. 
Based on available data, they knew that: 
	1.	DNA is a polymer of four types of nucleotides with the bases adenine (A) and guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). 
	2.	Based on Chargaff’s rules, the amount A  T, and the amount of G  C. 
	3.	Based on Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray diffraction photograph, DNA is a double helix with a repeating pattern.
			Using these data, Watson and Crick built an actual model of DNA out of wire and tin (Fig. 11.4). The model showed that the deoxyribose sugar–phosphate molecules are bonded to one another and make up the sides of a twisted ladder. The bases are joined by hydrogen bonds and make up the rungs of the ladder. Indeed, the pairing of A with T and G with C—now called complementary base pairing—results in rungs of a consistent width as required by the X-ray diffraction data. Figure 11.5 shows two ways to represent the structure of DNA.
The double-helix model of DNA permits the base pairs to be in any order, a necessity for genetic variability between species. Also, the model suggests that complementary base pairing may play a role in the replication of DNA. As Watson and Crick pointed out in their original paper, “It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.” 
Replication of DNA
When organisms grow or heal any injuries, cells divide. Each new cell requires an exact copy of DNA or it will not be able to function. DNA replication refers to the process of copying a DNA molecule. 
During DNA replication, each old DNA strand of the parent molecule serves as a template for a new strand in a daughter molecule (Fig. 11.6). A template is most often a mold used to produce a shape complementary to itself. DNA replication is also semiconservative because one of the two old strands is conserved, or present, in each daughter molecule.
Before replication begins, the two strands that make up parental DNA are hydrogen-bonded to one another. Replication requires the following steps:
	1.	Unwinding. The old strands that make up the parent DNA molecule are unwound and “unzipped” (i.e., the weak hydrogen bonds between the paired bases are broken). A special enzyme called helicase unwinds the molecule.
	2.	Complementary base pairing. New complementary nucleotides, always present in the nucleus, are positioned by the process of complementary base pairing. 
	3.	Joining. The complementary nucleotides join to form new strands. Each daughter DNA molecule contains an old strand and a new strand. 
Step 3 is carried out by an enzyme complex called DNA polymerase. Also, we should note that the enzyme DNA ligase seals any breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone. 
In Figure 11.6, the backbones of the parent molecule (original double strand) are purplish. Following replication, the daughter molecules each have an aqua backbone (new strand) and a purplish backbone (old strand). A daughter DNA double helix has the same sequence of base pairs as the parent DNA double helix had originally. Complementary base pairing has allowed this sequence to be maintained. 
In eukaryotes, DNA replication begins at numerous origins of replication along the length of the chromosome, and the so-called replication bubbles spread bidirectionally until they meet (Fig. 11.7). Although eukaryotes replicate their DNA at a fairly slow rate—500 to 5,000 base pairs per minute—there are many individual origins of replication. Therefore, eukaryotic cells complete the replication of the diploid amount of DNA (in humans, over 3 billion base pairs) in a matter of hours!
RNA Structure and Function 
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is made up of nucleotides containing the sugar ribose, thus accounting for its name. The four nucleotides that make up an RNA molecule have the following bases: -adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). Notice that in RNA, the base uracil replaces the base thymine (Fig. 11.8).
RNA, unlike DNA, is single-stranded, but the single RNA strand sometimes doubles back on itself, allowing complementary base pairing to occur. Similarities and differences between these two nucleic acid molecules are listed in Table 11.1.
In general, RNA is a helper to DNA, allowing protein synthesis to occur according to the genetic information that DNA provides. There are three types of RNA, each with a specific function in protein synthesis.
Messenger RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is produced in the nucleus. DNA serves as a template for its formation during a process called transcription. Which genes are transcribed is tightly controlled in each type of cell and accounts for why some cells are nerve cells and others are muscle cells, for example. Once formed, mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs. 
Transfer RNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is also produced in the nucleus, and a portion of DNA also serves as a template for its production. Because DNA serves as a template for both rRNA and tRNA, it is obvious that not all DNA directs protein synthesis. 
Appropriate to its name, tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes, where the amino acids are joined, forming a protein. There are 20 different types of amino acids in proteins; therefore, at least 20 tRNAs must be functioning in the cell. Each type of tRNA carries only one type of amino acid.
Ribosomal RNA
In eukaryotic cells, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is produced in the nucleolus of a nucleus, where a portion of DNA also serves as a template for its formation. Ribosomal RNA joins with proteins made in the cytoplasm to form the subunits of ribosomes, one large and one small. Each subunit has its own mix of proteins and rRNA. The subunits leave the nucleus and come together in the cytoplasm when protein synthesis is about to begin.
Proteins are synthesized at the ribosomes, which in low-power electron -micrographs look like granules often arranged along the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a system of tubules and saccules within the cytoplasm. Some ribosomes appear free in the cytoplasm or in clusters called polyribosomes. Proteins synthesized by polyribosomes are used in the cytoplasm, and those synthesized by attached ribosomes end up in the ER. From there, the protein is carried in a transport vesicle to the Golgi apparatus for modification and transport to the plasma membrane, where it may leave the cell. 
11.2		Gene Expression
In the early 1900s, the English physician Sir Archibald Garrod suggested a relationship between inheritance and metabolic diseases. He introduced the phrase inborn error of metabolism to dramatize this relationship. Garrod observed that family members often had the same disorder, and he said this inherited defect could be caused by the lack of a functioning enzyme in a metabolic pathway. Since it was already known that enzymes are proteins, Garrod was among the first to hypothesize a link between genes and proteins.
As we shall see, DNA provides the cell with a blueprint for synthesizing proteins. In eukaryotic cells, DNA resides in the nucleus, and protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm. Messenger RNA carries a copy of DNA’s directions into the cytoplasm, and the other RNA molecules we just discussed are also involved in bringing about protein synthesis. Before describing the mechanics of protein synthesis, let’s review the structure of proteins.
Structure and Function of Proteins
Proteins are found in all parts of the body; some are structural proteins, and some are enzymes. Proteins differ because the number and order of their amino acids differ. The unique sequence of amino acids in a protein leads to its particular shape, and the shape of a protein helps determine its function.
Figure 11.9 shows the sequence of amino acids in a portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone, which functions in the human body. Another protein, hemoglobin, is responsible for the red color of red blood cells. Albumins and globulins (antibodies) are well-known plasma proteins. Muscle cells contain the proteins actin and myosin, which give muscles substance and the ability to contract.
Enzymes are organic catalysts that speed reactions in cells. The reactions in cells form metabolic pathways. A pathway can be represented as follows:
	E1	E2	E3	E4
A£B£C£D£E
In this pathway, the letters are molecules, and the notations over the arrows are enzymes: Molecule A becomes molecule B, and enzyme E1 speeds the reaction; molecule B becomes molecule C, and enzyme E2 speeds the reaction; and so forth. Enzymes are specific: Enzyme E1 can only convert A to B, enzyme E2 can only convert B to C, and so forth. In 1940, George Beadle and Edward Tatum, after performing a series of experiments utilizing red bread mold, concluded that one gene specifies the synthesis of one enzyme. Today, we know that genes also code for structural proteins.
From DNA to RNA to Protein
How does a gene actually specify an enzyme or a protein? What is the mechanism of gene expression? Modern-day molecular biology tells us that during transcription, DNA serves as a template for RNA formation. The sequence of bases in DNA determines the sequence of bases in mRNA molecules. Then mRNA moves into the cytoplasm where translation occurs. During translation, an mRNA molecule directs the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. Every three bases in mRNA is a codon that codes for a particular amino acid. mRNA works with rRNA and tRNA to bring about the formation of a protein. 
The Genetic Code
The sequence of bases in mRNA codes for a particular sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. Can four bases (A, C, G, U) provide enough combinations to code for 20 amino acids? If the code were a singlet code (one base stands for an amino acid), only four amino acids could be encoded. If the code were a doublet (any two bases stand for one amino acid), it would still not be possible to code for 20 amino acids. But if the code were a triplet, the four bases could supply 64 different triplets, far more than needed to code for 20 different amino acids. It should come as no surprise, then, to learn that the code is a triplet code.
Each three--letter (nucleotide) unit of an mRNA molecule is called a codon (Fig. 11.10). Sixty-one triplets correspond to a particular amino acid; the remaining three are stop codons, which signal polypeptide termination. The one codon that stands for the amino acid methionine is also a start codon signaling initiation of polypeptide synthesis. Most amino acids have more than one codon, which offers some protection against possibly harmful mutations that could otherwise change the sequence of the bases.
To crack the code, a cell-free experiment was done: Researchers added artificial RNA to a medium containing bacterial ribosomes and a mixture of amino acids. By comparing the bases in the mRNA with the resulting polypeptide, they were able to decipher the code. For example, an mRNA with a sequence of repeating guanines (GGGGGG…) would encode a string of glycine amino acids.
The genetic code is just about universal in living things. This suggests that the code dates back to the very first organisms on Earth and that all living things are related. 
Transcription
During transcription of DNA, a strand of RNA forms that is complementary to a portion of DNA. While all three classes of RNA are formed by transcription, we will focus on transcription to create mRNA. 
mRNA Is FormedTranscription begins when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds tightly to a promoter, a region of DNA that contains a special sequence of nucleotides. This enzyme opens up the DNA helix just in front of it so that complementary base pairing can occur. Then RNA polymerase joins the RNA nucleotides, and an mRNA molecule results. When mRNA forms, it has a sequence of bases complementary to DNA; wherever A, T, G, or C is present in the DNA template, U, A, C, or G is incorporated into the mRNA molecule. The resulting mRNA transcript is a faithful copy of the sequence of bases in DNA. In Figure 11.11, mRNA is now ready to be processed before it leaves the nucleus for the cytoplasm.
mRNA Is ProcessedThe newly synthesized primary mRNA molecule becomes a mature mRNA molecule after processing. Most genes in humans are interrupted by segments of DNA that are not part of the gene. These portions are called introns because they are intragene segments. The other portions of the gene are called exons because they are ultimately expressed. Only exons result in a protein product. 
Primary mRNA contains bases that are complementary to both exons and introns, but during processing two events occur: (1) One end of the mRNA is modified by the addition of a cap, composed of an altered guanine nucleotide, and the other end is modified by the addition of a poly-A tail, a series of adenosine nucleotides. Only mRNAs that have a cap and tail remain active in the cell. (2) The introns are removed, and the exons are joined to form a mature mRNA molecule consisting of continuous exons (Fig. 11.12). 
Ordinarily, processing brings together all the exons of a gene. In some instances, however, cells use only certain exons rather than all of them to form the mature RNA transcript. The result is a different protein product in each cell. In other words, alternate mRNA splicing can potentially increase the possible number of protein products from a particular sequence of DNA nucleotides. 
Processing occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. After the mRNA strand is processed, it passes from the cell nucleus into the cytoplasm. There it becomes associated with the ribosomes.
Translation: An Overview
Translation is the second step by which gene expression leads to protein (polypeptide) synthesis. Translation requires several enzymes, mRNA, and the other two types of RNA: transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA.
Transfer RNA Brings Amino Acids to the RibosomesEach tRNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid that doubles back on itself such that complementary base pairing results in the shape shown in Figure 11.13. There is at least one tRNA molecule for each of the 20 amino acids found in proteins. The amino acid binds to one end of the molecule. The opposite end of the molecule contains an anticodon, a group of three bases that is complementary to a specific codon of mRNA. 
After an mRNA transcript is processed, it leaves the nucleus and moves to a ribosome. Now translation begins—the order of codons in mRNA determines the order in which tRNAs bond at the ribosomes. When a tRNA–amino acid complex comes to the ribosome, its anticodon pairs with an mRNA codon. For example, if the codon is ACC, what is the anticodon, and what amino acid will be attached to the tRNA molecule? From Figure 11.10, we can determine this:
	Codon (mRNA) 	Anticodon (tRNA) 	Amino Acid (protein)
	ACC	UGG	Threonine
In this way, the order of the codons of the mRNA determines the order that tRNA–amino acid complexes come to a ribosome, and therefore the final sequence of amino acids in a protein. 
After translation is complete, a protein contains the sequence of amino acids originally specified by DNA. This is the genetic information that DNA stores and passes on to each cell during the cell cycle, and passes on to the next generation of individuals. DNA’s sequence of bases determines the proteins in a cell, and the proteins in turn determine whether an organism is a human being or a giraffe, as an example.
Ribosomal RNA Is in RibosomesRibosomes are the small structural bodies where translation occurs. Ribosomes are composed of many proteins and several ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). As stated, in eukaryotic cells, rRNA is produced in a nucleolus within the nucleus. There it joins with proteins manufactured in the cytoplasm to form two ribosomal subunits, one large and one small. The subunits leave the nucleus and join together in the cytoplasm to form a ribosome just as protein synthesis begins.
A ribosome has a binding site for mRNA as well as binding sites for two tRNA molecules at a time (Fig. 11.13). These binding sites facilitate complementary base pairing between tRNA anticodons and mRNA codons. The P binding site is for a tRNA attached to a peptide, and the A binding site is for a newly arrived tRNA attached to an amino acid.
As soon as the initial portion of mRNA has been translated by one ribosome, and the ribosome has begun to move down the mRNA, another ribosome attaches to the same mRNA. Therefore, several ribosomes are often attached to and translating the same mRNA, allowing the cell to produce thousands of copies of the same protein at a time.  The entire complex is called a polyribosome (Fig. 11.14.)
Translation Has Three Phases
Polypeptide synthesis has three phases: initiation, an elongation cycle, and termination. Enzymes are required for each of the steps to occur, and energy is needed for the first two steps.
	1.	During initiation, mRNA binds to the smaller of the two ribosomal subunits; then the larger subunit associates with the smaller one.
	2.	During an elongation cycle, a peptide lengthens one amino acid at a time. The incoming tRNA–amino acid complex receives the peptide from the outgoing tRNA. The ribosome then moves forward so that the next mRNA codon is available to receive an incoming tRNA–amino acid complex. 
	3.	Termination occurs at a codon that means stop and does not code for an amino acid. The ribosomal subunits and mRNA dissociate. The completed polypeptide is released.
InitiationDuring initiation, a small ribosomal subunit, the mRNA, an initiator tRNA bound to the amino acid methionine, and a large ribosomal subunit all come together (Fig. 11.15):
	•	The small ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA in the vicinity of the start codon (AUG). 
	•	The anticodon of the initiator tRNA–methionine complex pairs with this codon. 
	•	The large ribosomal subunit joins to the small subunit.
Elongation CycleAs discussed, a ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA where the tRNA’s anticodon binds to a codon of mRNA. During the elongation cycle (Fig. 11.16):
	•	A tRNA at the P site usually bears a peptide built up previously. (See .)
	•	This tRNA passes its peptide to tRNA–amino acid at the A site. The tRNA at the P site leaves. (See  and .)
	•	The ribosome moves forward one codon (called translocation). The tRNA-peptide is now at the P site, and the codon at the A site is ready for the next tRNA–amino acid. (See .)
The complete cycle—complementary base pairing of new tRNA, transfer of peptide chain, and translocation—is repeated at a rapid rate (about 15 times each second in the bacterium Escherichia coli). The outgoing tRNA picks up another amino acid and is ready to return to the ribosome.
Review of Gene Expression
Genes consist of DNA, which codes for all the proteins in a cell. A gene is expressed when its protein product has been made. Figure 11.17 reviews transcription and mRNA processing in the nucleus, as well as translation during protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. 
Some ribosomes remain free in the cytoplasm, and others become attached to rough ER. In the latter case, the polypeptide enters the lumen of the ER by way of a channel, where it is further processed by the addition of sugars or lipids. Transport vesicles carry the protein to other locations in the cell, including the Golgi apparatus, which may modify it further and package it in a vesicle for transport out of the cell. Proteins have innumerable functions in cells, from enzymatic to structural. They account for the structure and function of cells, tissues, organs, and the organism. 
Genes and Gene Mutations
Whereas early geneticists thought of genes as sections of a chromosome, in molecular genetics, a gene is a sequence of DNA bases that code for a product, most often a protein. Therefore, it follows that a gene mutation is a change in the sequence of bases within a gene. 
Causes of Gene Mutations
A gene mutation can be caused by an error in replication, a transposon, or an environmental mutagen. Mutations due to DNA replication errors are rare; a frequency of one in 100 million per cell division is often quoted. DNA polymerase, the enzyme that carries out replication, proofreads the new strand against the old strand and detects any mismatched pairs, which are then replaced with the correct nucleotides. Transposons are specific DNA sequences that have the remarkable ability to move within and between chromosomes. So-called jumping genes have now been discovered in bacteria, fruit flies, and humans, and it is likely all organisms have such elements.
Mutagens are environmental influences that cause mutations. Different forms of radiation, such as radioactivity, X rays, and ultraviolet (UV) light, cause breaks in DNA molecules, which can be incorrectly repaired. Chemical mutagens, such as certain pesticides and chemicals in cigarette smoke, alter the bases in DNA, causing them to pair incorrectly.  Mutagens may affect all types of organisms, including humans. If mutagens bring about a mutation in the gametes, the offspring of the individual may be affected. If the mutation occurs in the body cells, cancer may result. The usual rate of mutation is low because DNA repair enzymes constantly monitor and repair any irregularities.
Effects of Mutations
In general, we know a mutation has occurred when the organism has a malfunctioning protein that leads to a genetic disorder or to the development of cancer. Most often, genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, are inherited conditions and represent germ-line mutations that occurred in the sex cells. Somatic mutations that occur in the body cells are most likely the cause of cancer.
Point mutations involve a change in a single DNA nucleotide, and the results can vary depending on the particular base change that occurs. For example, if valine instead of glutamate occurs in the b chain of hemoglobin at one particular location, sickle cell disease results. The abnormal hemoglobin stacks up inside cells, and their sickle shape makes them clog small vessels. Hemorrhaging leads to damage and pain in internal organs and joints.
Codons are read from a specific starting point, as in this sentence: THE CAT ATE THE RAT. If the letter C is deleted from this sentence and the “reading frame” is shifted, we read THE ATA TET HER AT—something that doesn’t make sense. If a frameshift mutation occurs early in the DNA base sequence of a gene, a completely nonfunctional protein results.
The presence of white kernels in a type of purple corn commonly used in genetic studies is due to a transposon located within a gene coding for a pigment-producing enzyme (Fig. 11.18). In humans, a neurological disorder called Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is named for the three people who discovered it. This disorder, which causes weakness in the legs, feet, and hands  occurs when the transposon, called mariner, is present in the human genome. Exactly why its presence causes the disease is being investigated. 
11.3		DNA Technology
The knowledge that a gene is a sequence of bases in a DNA strand led to our ability to manipulate the genes of organisms. We can clone genes (make identical copies) and then use the genes for various purposes. For example, cloned genes can be used to determine the difference in base sequence between different forms of a gene in the same or different species. During so called genetic engineering, a foreign gene can be inserted into the genome of an organism, which is then called a transgenic organism. It’s possible to create transgenic bacteria, plants, and animals. Recombinant DNA technology is often used to create transgenic bacteria.
Recombinant DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) contains DNA from two or more different sources (Fig. 11.19). To make rDNA, a researcher needs a vector, a piece of DNA that can have foreign DNA added to it. One common vector is a plasmid, which is a small accessory ring of DNA found in bacteria.
Two enzymes are needed to introduce foreign DNA into plasmid DNA: (1) Restriction enzymes cleave DNA, and (2) DNA ligase seals DNA into an opening created by the restriction enzyme. Hundreds of restriction enzymes occur naturally in bacteria, where they cut up (cleave) any viral DNA that enters the cell. They are called restriction enzymes because they restrict the growth of viruses, but they can also be used as molecular scissors to cut double-stranded DNA at a specific site. For example, the restriction enzyme EcoRI always recognizes and cuts in this manner when DNA has the sequence of bases GAATTC:
Notice that a gap now exists into which a piece of foreign DNA can be placed if it ends in bases complementary to those exposed by the restriction enzyme. To ensure this, it is only necessary to cleave the foreign DNA with the same restriction enzyme. The single-stranded, but complementary, ends of the two DNA molecules are called “sticky ends” because they can bind a piece of foreign DNA by complementary base pairing. Sticky ends facilitate the insertion of foreign DNA into vector DNA.
DNA ligase, the enzyme that functions in DNA replication to seal breaks in a double-stranded helix, seals the -foreign piece of DNA into the plasmid. Bacterial cells take up recombinant plasmids, especially if the cells are treated to make them more per-meable. Thereafter, as the plasmid replicates, the gene is cloned.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can create millions of copies of a segment of DNA very quickly in a test tube without the use of a vector or a host cell. The original sample of PCR is usually just a portion of the entire genome (all the genes of an individual). PCR is very specific—it amplifies (makes copies of) a targeted DNA sequence that can be less than one part in a million of the total DNA sample!
PCR requires the following: DNA polymerase, the enzyme that carries out DNA replication; a set of primers; and a supply of nucleotides for the new DNA strands. Primers are single-stranded DNA sequences that start the replication process on each DNA strand. PCR is a chain reaction because the targeted DNA is repeatedly replicated as long as the process continues. The process is shown in Figure 11.20. The amount of DNA doubles with each replication cycle; after one cycle, there are two copies of the targeted DNA sequence; after two cycles, there are four copies, and so forth. 
PCR has been in use for several years, and now almost every laboratory has automated PCR machines to carry out the procedure. Automation became possible after a -temperature-insensitive DNA polymerase was extracted from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus, which lives in hot springs. During the PCR cycle, the mixture of DNA and primers is heated to 95°C to separate the two strands of the double helix so that the primers can bind to the single strands of DNA. The polymerase can withstand the high temperature used to separate double-stranded DNA; therefore, replication does not have to be interrupted by the need to add more enzyme.
DNA amplified by PCR is often analyzed for various purposes. Mitochondrial DNA base sequences in modern living populations have been used to decipher the evolutionary history of human populations. Because so little DNA is required for PCR to be effective, it has even been possible to sequence DNA taken from a 76,000-year-old mummified human brain.
Applications
DNA -fingerprinting makes use of noncoding sections of DNA that consist of two to five bases repeated over and over again, as in ATCATCATCATC. People differ by how many times such a sequence is repeated, but how can this difference be detected? The greater the number of repeats, the greater the relative amount of DNA that will result after PCR amplication is done. People can be heterozygous for the number of repeats as in Figure 11.21, so the DNA from both homologues has to be amplified separately. Following PCR, the DNA is subjected to gel electrophoresis, a process whereby the DNA samples migrate through a jellylike material according to size. The smaller the amount of DNA, the further it migrates.  
DNA fingerprinting has many uses. Medically, it can identify the presence of a viral infection or a mutated gene that could predispose someone to cancer. In forensics, DNA fingerprinting from a single sperm is enough to identify a suspected rapist because the DNA is amplified by PCR. It can also be used to identify the parents of a child or identify the remains of someone who died, such as a victim of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. In the latter instance, skin cells left on a personal item such as a toothbrush or cigarette butt sometimes provided enough DNA for matching tests. The National Football League even uses DNA copied by PCR to mark each of the Super Bowl footballs in order to authenticate them.
Transgenic Organisms
The term biotechnology refers to the use of natural biological systems to create a product or achieve some other end desired by human beings. Today, bacteria, plants, and animals can be genetically engineered to make biotechnology products. Various uses of transgenic organisms are shown in Figure 11.22.
Transgenic BacteriaRecombinant DNA technology is used to produce transgenic bacteria, which are grown in huge vats called bioreactors. The gene product is collected from the medium. Products now on the market that are produced by bacteria include insulin, human growth hormone, t-PA (tissue plasminogen activator), and hepatitis B vaccine. Bacteria can be selected for their ability to degrade a particular substance, such as oil, and this ability can then be enhanced by genetic engineering. Similarly, some mining companies are testing -genetically engineered organisms that have improved -bioleaching capabilities. Bacteria can also be engineered to produce organic chemicals used in industry.
Transgenic PlantsForeign genes have been transferred to cotton, corn, and potato strains to make these plants resistant to pests by causing their cells to produce an insect toxin. Similarly, soybeans have been made resistant to a common herbicide. Some corn and cotton plants are both pest- and herbicide-resistant. These and other genetically engineered crops have increased yields. Plant seeds are also being engineered to produce human proteins, such as hormones, clotting factors, and antibodies. 
Transgenic AnimalsForeign genes have been inserted into the eggs of animals, often to give them the gene for bovine growth hormone (bGH). The procedure has resulted in larger fishes, cows, pigs, rabbits, and sheep. Gene “pharming,” the use of transgenic farm animals to produce pharmaceuticals, is being pursued by a number of firms. Genes that code for therapeutic and diagnostic proteins are incorporated into an animal’s DNA, and the proteins appear in the animal’s milk.
To achieve a sufficient number of animals that can produce the product, transgenic animals are sometimes cloned. For many years, it was believed that adult vertebrate animals could not be cloned. Although each cell contains a copy of all the genes, certain genes are turned off in mature, specialized cells, and cloning an adult vertebrate would require that all the genes of an adult cell be turned on again, which had long been thought impossible. In 1997, however, Scottish scientists produced a cloned sheep, which they named Dolly. Since then, calves, goats, and many other animals, including some endangered species, have also been cloned. After enucleated eggs from a donor are microinjected with 2n nuclei from a transgenic animal, they are coaxed to begin development in vitro. Development continues in host females until the clones are born. The offspring are clones because all have the identical genotype of the adult that donated the 2n nuclei. Now that scientists have a way to clone animals, this procedure will undoubtedly be used routinely to procure biotechnology products.
The Chapter in Review
Summary
11.1		DNA and RNA Structure and Function
Structure of DNA
DNA, the genetic material, has the following structure: 
	•	DNA is a polymer in which four nucleotides differ by their bases. The bases are symbolized by the letters A, G, C, and T. 
	•	Purine A is always paired with T, and G is always paired with C, a pattern called complementary base pairing:
	•	DNA is a double helix. The deoxyribose sugar–phosphate molecules make up the sides of a twisted ladder, and the paired bases are the rungs of the ladder. Base pairs can be in any order in each type of species.
Replication of DNA
DNA replicates and every new cell gets a copy. During DNA replication, each old strand gives rise to a new strand. Therefore, the process is called semiconservative. Because of complementary base pairing, all these double helix molecules are identical:
RNA Structure and Function
RNA has the following characteristics:
	•	It is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. 
	•	It contains the sugar ribose and the bases A, U, C, G.
	•	It is single-stranded.
	•	The three forms are mRNA, which carries the DNA message to the ribosomes; tRNA, which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs; and rRNA, which is found in the ribosomes. 
11.2		Gene Expression
DNA specifies the sequence of amino acids in a protein; therefore, gene expression occurs once the protein product is present. Gene expression requires two steps: transcription and translation.
From DNA to RNA to Protein
TranscriptionDuring transcription, mRNA forms and is then processed. Processing involves (1) the addition of a cap to one end and the addition of a poly-A tail to the other end, and (2) removal of introns so that only exons remain. 
TranslationTranslation requires all three types of RNA: 
	•	mRNA contains codons in which every three bases code for a particular amino acid except when the codon means start or stop. 
	•	tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes. One end of the molecule binds to the amino acid, and the other end is the anticodon, three bases that pair with a codon. Each tRNA binds with only one of the 20 types of amino acids in a protein. 
	•	rRNA is located in the ribosomes. The P site of a ribosome contains a tRNA attached to a peptide, and the A site contains a tRNA attached to an amino acid.
Three Phases of Translation 
The three phases of translation are initiation, the elongation cycle, and termination.
InitiationDuring chain initiation at the start codon, the ribosomal subunits, the mRNA, and the tRNA-methionine complex come together.
Elongation cycleThe chain elongation cycle consists of these events:
	•	A tRNA at the P site passes its peptide to tRNA–amino acid at the A site. The tRNA at the P site leaves.
	•	The ribosome moves forward one codon (called translocation), and the codon at the A site is ready for the next tRNA–amino acid.
TerminationDuring chain termination at a stop codon, the ribosome dissociates, the last tRNA departs, and the polypeptide is released.
Genes and Gene Mutations 
A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of bases. Mutations can be due to errors in replication, transposons, or environmental mutagens. The results of mutations can vary from no effect to a nonfunctional protein.
11.3		DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA technology uses restriction enzymes to cleave DNA so that a foreign gene can be inserted into a vector, such as a plasmid:
Polymerase Chain Reaction
The polymerase chain reaction occurs in a test tube. Heat separates double-stranded DNA. Primers flank the target DNA, and heat-insensitive DNA polymerase copies the target DNA. The cycle is repeated until hundreds of thousands of copies are produced.
DNA Fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting helps identify relatives, remains, and criminals. Following PCR if needed, restriction enzymes are used to fragment samples of DNA. When separated by gel electrophoresis, a pattern results that is unique to the individual.
Biotechnology
Biotechnology uses natural biological systems to create a product or to achieve an end desired by human beings. Foreign genes have been transferred to bacteria, to crops, and to farm animals to improve their characteristics and produce commercial products. 
Thinking Scientifically
	1.	Skin cancer is more common than brain cancer. Why might the frequency of cancer be related to the rate of cell division in skin as opposed to the rate of cell division in the brain? 
	2.	There has been much popular interest in re-creating extinct animals from DNA obtained from various types of fossils. However, such DNA is always badly degraded, consisting of extremely short pieces. Explain why it would be impossible to create a dinosaur even if you had 30 intact genes from a dinosaur. 
Testing Yourself
	1.	In the following diagram, label all parts of the DNA molecule.
Choose the best answer for each question.
	2.	Chargaff’s rules state that the amount of A, T, G, and C in DNA
	a.	
varies from species to species, and the amount of AT and GC.
	b.	
varies from species to species, and the amount of AG and TC.
	c.	
is the same from species to species, and the amount of AT and GC.
	d.	
is the same from species to species, and the amount of AG and TC. 
	3.	Because each daughter molecule contains one old strand of DNA, DNA replication is said to be
	a. conservative.
	b. preservative.
	c. semidiscontinuous.
	d. semiconservative.
	4.	Which of the following is not a feature of eukaryotic DNA replication?
	a. Replication bubbles spread bidirectionally.
	b. A new strand is synthesized using an old one as a template.
	c.	
Complementary base pairing determines which nucleotides should be added to the parental strand.
	d. Each chromosome has one origin of replication. 
For questions 5-–8, match the items to those in the key. Answers can be used more than once.
Key:
	a. messenger RNA
	b. transfer RNA
	c. ribosomal RNA
	5.	Produced in the nucleus.
	6.	Carries amino acids to the ribosome.
	7.	Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
	8.	Produced in the nucleolus.
	9.	Which is not a feature of an enzyme?
	a. specific in its activity
	b. acts as an organic catalyst
	c. provides structural support to a cell
	d. speeds biochemical reactions 
	10.	Transcription produces _________, while translation produces _________.
	a. DNA, RNA
	b. RNA, polypeptides
	c. polypeptides, RNA
	d. RNA, DNA
	11.	Label the components of transcription in the following diagram.
For questions 12–15, match the items to those in the key.
Key:
	a. germ-line mutation
	b. frameshift mutation
	c. point mutation
	d. somatic mutation
	12.	Occurs in body cells.
	13.	Base change that changes all the codons from here on.
	14.	Base change in one codon only. 
	15.	Occurs in the sex cells.
	16.	Which of the following is not required for the polymerase chain reaction?
	a. DNA polymerase
	b. RNA polymerase
	c. DNA primers
	d. nucleotides
Go to www.mhhe.com/maderessentials for more quiz questions.
Bioethical Issue
Arthur Lee Whitfield had served 22 years of a 63-year sentence for rape when he was notified that he had gained the right to use DNA fingerprinting to establish his innocence. Luckily, biological evidence had been saved from his jury trial, and DNA fingerprinting showed that his DNA did not match that of the rapist. However, this DNA did match that of another inmate who was serving a life sentence for an unrelated rape conviction. 
Considering that DNA fingerprinting can prove the guilt or innocence of suspects, should everyone be required to contribute blood to create a national DNA fingerprint databank? Or does this constitute search without cause, which is illegal in the United States? DNA fingerprinting evidence was ruled inadmissible in the O.J. Simpson trial because it could not be proven that the police had not “planted” Simpson’s blood at the crime scene. Do similar suspicions make you think that DNA fingerprinting should not be allowed even to prove the innocence of a person like Whitfield? 
Understanding the Terms
adenine (A)161
anticodon168
biotechnology175
codon166
complementary base pairing162
cytosine (C)161
DNA fingerprinting174
DNA ligase173
DNA polymerase164
DNA replication164
frameshift mutation172
gene mutation172
genetic engineering173
guanine (G)161
messenger RNA (mRNA)165
mRNA transcript167
mutagen172
point mutation172
polymerase chain reaction 
(PCR)174
polyribosome169
promoter167
recombinant DNA (rDNA)173
restriction enzyme173
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)165
ribosome165
RNA (ribonucleic acid)164
RNA polymerase167
semiconservative164
template164
thymine (T)161
transfer RNA (tRNA)165
transcription166
transgenic organism173
translation166 
translocation170
transposon172
triplet code167
uracil (U)164
vector173
Match the terms to these definitions:
a. _______________ Double-ring bases in nucleotides.
b. _______________ Pairing of adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine.
c. _______________ A mold used to produce a shape complementary to itself.
d. _______________ The enzyme that adds new nucleotides during DNA replication.
e. _______________ A region of DNA that contains a sequence of nucleotides signaling RNA polymerase to begin transcription.

While keeping track of its progress (screen), this machine can copy just a segment of your DNA over and over again until there are millions of copies.
DNA can be transferred from one kind of species to another. These pigs glow from having received jellyfish bioluminescent genes as embryos.
Every type of tissue cell in your body contains a complete copy of your body’s DNA.
Check Your Progress
	1.	
Of what benefit was it to early investigators to know that species differ in the amount of A, T, G, and C in their DNA?
	2.	Of what benefit was it to know that the amount of A  T and the amount of G  C? 
Answers:1. The fact that DNA has a way to be variable made it the most likely candidate to be the genetic material.2. This pattern suggested that DNA has the stability to be the genetic material.
Figure 11.2Nucleotide composition of DNA and RNA.
a. All nucleotides contain phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base, such as cytosine (C). b. Structure of phosphate. c. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA, the sugar is ribose. d. In DNA the nitrogen-containing bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine; in RNA the bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil.
Figure 11.4Watson and Crick model of DNA.
James Watson (left) and Francis Crick with their model of DNA.
Figure 11.3X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA.
a. Rosalind Franklin X-rayed DNA using crystallography techniques. b. The pattern that resulted indicated that DNA is a double helix (see X pattern in the center) and that some part of the molecule is repeated over and over again (see the dark portions at top and bottom). Watson and Crick determined that this repeating feature was the paired bases.
Figure 11.5DNA structure.
a. A space-filling model of DNA shows the close stacking of the paired bases, as determined by DNA’s X-ray diffraction pattern. b. Complementary-base pairing dictates that A is hydrogen-bonded to T (as shown), and G is hydrogen-bonded to C in the same manner. The strands of DNA run counter to one another, with the 3’ end of one strand opposite the 5’ end of the other strand. c. Diagram of the DNA double helix shows that the molecule resembles a twisted ladder. The paired bases can be in any order.
Check Your Progress
	1.	
What is the significance of the central X in the X-ray diffraction pattern of the molecule? 
	2.	What did Watson and Crick decide about the bases that made their model consistent with both the X-ray diffraction pattern and Chargaff’s rules? 
Answers:1. DNA is a double helix. 2. Because A is hydrogen-bonded to T, and G is hydrogen-bonded to C, the amount of A  T and the amount of G  C, as dictated by Chargaff’s rules and the rungs are of a consistent width as required by the X-ray diffraction data. 
Figure 11.7Eukaryotic replication.
In eukaryotes, replication occurs at numerous replication forks. The bubbles thereby created spread out until they meet.
Figure 11.6Semiconservative replication. 
After the DNA molecule unwinds, each old strand serves as a template for the formation of a new strand. After replication is complete, there are two daughter DNA molecules identical to each other and to the original double helix.
Figure 11.8Structure of RNA.
Like DNA, RNA is a polymer of nucleotides. In an RNA nucleotide, the sugar ribose is attached to a phosphate molecule and to a base, either G, U, A, or C. Notice that in RNA, the base uracil (U) replaces thymine as one of the pyrimidine bases. RNA is single-stranded, whereas DNA is double-stranded. 
Check Your Progress
	1.	Why is DNA replication necessary for all organisms?
	2.	Contrast RNA with DNA.
	3.	Compare and contrast transfer RNA with ribosomal RNA.
Answers:1. DNA replication provides a copy of the genetic material for each cell in an organism and for each offspring of the organism.2. RNA contains ribose, while DNA contains deoxyribose. RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. RNA is usually single-stranded, while DNA is double-stranded.
3. Both are produced in the nucleus and are involved in protein synthesis. Transfer RNA carries amino acids to ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA is a structural component of ribosomes.
Figure 11.9Structure of proteins.
a. The primary structure of a protein. Each amino acid is designated by three letters that stand for its name. b. Portions of the secondary structure can be either a helix or a pleated sheet. c. The tertiary structure is the final three-dimensional shape. 
Check Your Progress
	1.	
Explain what is meant by “inborn error of metabolism.”
	2.	
Explain how a protein’s function is determined by amino acid sequence.
Answers:1. Family members often have the same disorder, and this inherited defect could be caused by a nonfunctioning enzyme in a metabolic pathway.2. The amino acid sequence determines the shape of a protein, which in turn determines its function.
Figure 11.10Messenger RNA codons.
Notice that in this chart, each of the codons are composed of three letters. As an example, find the rectangle where C is the first base and A is the second base. U, C, A, or G can be the third base. CAU and CAC are codons for histidine; CAA and CAG are codons for glutamine. 
Figure 11.11Transcription to form mRNA.
During transcription, complementary RNA is made from a DNA template. A portion of DNA unwinds and unzips at the point of attachment of RNA polymerase. A strand of RNA, such as mRNA, is produced when complementary bases join in the order dictated by the sequence of bases in the template DNA strand. 
Figure 11.12mRNA processing.
Primary mRNA results when both exons and introns are transcribed from DNA. A “cap” and a poly-A “tail” are attached to the ends of the primary RNA transcript, and the introns are removed so that only the exons remain. This mature mRNA molecule moves into the cytoplasm of the cell where translation occurs. 
Figure 11.13tRNA structure and function. 
a. A tRNA, which is single-stranded but folded, has an amino acid attached to one end and an anticodon at the other end. The anticodon is complementary to a codon. b. A ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA, called the P site and the A site. A peptide attached to tRNA at the P site will be passed to an amino acid attached to a tRNA as soon as it arrives at the A site. c. The pairing between codon and anticodon at a ribosome ensures that the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide is the same sequence directed originally by DNA.
Figure 11.14Polyribosome structure and function.
a. Several ribosomes, collectively called a polyribosome, move along an mRNA at one time. Therefore, several proteins can be made at the same time. b. Electron micrograph of a polyribosome. 
Figure 11.15Initiation.
A small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA; an initiator tRNA’s anticodon binds to its codon, and the large ribosomal subunit completes the ribosome.
Figure 11.16Elongation cycle.
 Two tRNAs can be at a ribosome at one time.  The tRNA at the P site passes its peptide to the tRNA at the A site.  The tRNA at the P sites leaves.  The ribosome moves forward (translocation), and the tRNA-peptide complex is now at the P site. 
A new tRNA–amino acid complex comes to the A site. 
Figure 11.17Summary of gene expression in eukaryotes.
mRNA is produced and processed in the nucleus, and protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm. Some ribosomes become attached to rough ER, and the polypeptide enters the ER, where it folds and is further modified. 
Check Your Progress
	1.	
Describe the events of transcription.
	2.	Describe the events of translation. 
Answers:1. During transcription, DNA serves as a template for RNA synthesis. At a promoter region, RNA polymerase opens DNA to make it single-stranded. Then it adds RNA nucleotides to build an RNA strand.2. During translation, mRNA directs the synthesis of a polypeptide. Messenger RNA has a sequence of codons that dictate the order in which tRNA–amino acid complexes come to a ribosome. During elongation, the peptide is passed from a departing tRNA to an arriving tRNA. In the end, the polypeptide has a sequence of amino acids as dictated by DNA.

Figure 11.18Transposon.
a. Barbara McClintock, shown here instructing a student, won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for being the first to discover transposons. She worked with maize (corn). b. In corn, a purple-coding gene ordinarily codes for a purple pigment. 
c. A transposon “jumps” into the purple-coding gene. This mutated gene is unable to code for purple pigment, and a white kernel results.
Check Your Progress
Define a gene mutation, and describe three major types of mutations.
Answer:A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of bases in a gene. Frameshift mutations change the reading frame; point mutations change one base; and transposons interrupt DNA.
Figure 11.19Recombinant DNA technology.
Production of insulin is one example of how recombinant DNA technology can benefit humans. Human DNA and plasmid DNA are spliced together. Gene cloning is achieved when a host cell takes up the recombinant plasmid, and as the cell reproduces, the plasmid is replicated. Multiple copies of the gene are now available. If the insulin gene functions normally as expected, insulin may also be retrieved.
Figure 11.20Polymerase chain reaction.
At the start of PCR, the original double-stranded DNA from all the chromosomes is mixed with DNA polymerase, two primers (gold and pink), that flank the target sequence on both homologues and a supply of the four nucleotides in DNA. At the end of the first cycle, there are two identical copies of double-stranded DNA. Usually 25–30 cycles are run in an automated cycler, resulting in over 30 million copies of the original DNA double strand. 
Figure 11.21DNA fingerprinting.
Following PCR, gel electrophoresis reveals the comparative pattern of repeats in the DNA. Here, DNA fingerprinting is being used to identify a criminal.
Figure 11.22Uses of transgenic organisms.
a. Transgenic bacteria, grown industrially, are used to produce medicines. Transgenic animals and plants increase the food supply. b. These salmon (right) are much heavier and reproduce much sooner because of the growth hormone genes they received as embryos. c. Pests didn’t consume unblemished peas because the plants that produced them received genes for pest inhibitors. 
d. Gene guns are often used to insert genes in plant embryos while they are in tissue culture. e. Transgenic bacteria can also be used for environmental cleanup. These bacteria are able to break down oil.
Check Your Progress
	1.	What two techniques allow researchers to clone a segment of DNA? 
	2.	What happens to a cloned gene in order to produce transgenic organisms?
Answers:1. Recombinant DNA technology is used to produce transgenic bacteria. When the bacteria reproduce, the gene is cloned. PCR can clone a segment of DNA.2. The gene is placed in a different species from that of the gene donor.

Table 11.1	Comparison of DNA 
and RNA  	

DNA-RNA SIMILARITIES	
Both are nucleic acids.	
Both are composed of nucleotides.	
Both have a sugar-phosphate backbone.	
Both have four different types of bases.	
DNA-RNA Differences	
DNA	RNA	
Found in nucleus	Found in nucleus and cytoplasm	
Genetic material	Helper to DNA	
Sugar is deoxyribose	Sugar is ribose	
Bases are A, T, C, G	Bases are A, U, C, G	
Double-stranded	Single-stranded	
Is transcribed 
(to give mRNA)	mRNA is translated 
(to give proteins)	

Figure 11.1The genes are composed of DNA.
An early experiment by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase helped determine that DNA is the genetic material. Their experiment involved a virus which infects bacteria such as E. coli. They wanted to know which part of the virus—the capsid made of protein or the DNA inside the capsid-—entered the bacterium. Radioactive tracers showed that DNA, not protein, enters the bacterium and guides the formation of new viruses. Therefore, DNA must be the genetic material.